Category: fundamentals Of Science And Technology

Communication Technology Communication is the exchange of information through different mediums. It is an activity that started even before the civilization of human beings; however, over a period of time, as technology advanced, accordingly different modes of communications also developed including telecommunication and wireless communication. In today’s world, information and communication technology play an important role in almost every activity that we perform. Types of Communication Based on the advancement and mode of technology, telecommunication is categorized as − Telecommunication Wireless Communication Let us now discuss each category − Telecommunication Telecommunication is a technique of transmission of information from one location to another by electromagnetic means. Different types of information can be transferred through a telecommunication system, such as voice, text, pictures, etc. Modern Telecommunication System The modern form of telecommunication involves computer technology and it is capable of transferring wide range of data including audio, video, textual, many other computer files. Major components of modern telecommunication are − Hardware − For example, computer system and modems. Software − This controls the Computer programs. Media − This is the communication outlet, wired or wireless. Networking − This technology connects various computer systems. Protocols − These rules govern information and communication transmission system. Wireless Communication Wireless communication is a technique of transmitting the information or power between two or more points, which are actually not connected with the physical wire/conductor. The most common wireless technology uses ‘radio waves’. Microwave transmission is another technology. The world’s first wireless telephone communication took place in 1880. This was experimented by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Summer Tainter. Both of them together invented and patented the ‘photophone.’ Photophone was a sort of telephone, which conducted audio conversations wirelessly over modulated light beams, i.e., electromagnetic waves. However, in the 21st century, the invention of cellular phones radically changed the concept of communication system and made available the wireless communication system even in the remote part of the country. Modulation Modulation is one of the most significant processes through which characteristics of a carrier wave varies in accordance with an information signal. In telecommunications, modulation is the process of transmitting a message signal inside another signal so that it can be physically transmitted. Likewise, modulation of a sine waveform transforms the narrow frequency range baseband message signal into the passband signal to pass through a filter. Demodulation Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation that change the signal and makes it understandable to the user. Modulator A modulator is a device that performs the modulation process. Demodulator Demodulator is a device that performs reverse modulation process or inverse of modulation. Modem Modem is device that performs both the process i.e. modulation and demodulation. Types of Modulation Let us now see what the different types of modulation are − Analog Modulation The waves continuously vary here and transfer signals; for example, audio signal, television signal, etc. Digital Modulation It remains in the form of discrete pulse, i.e., ‘on’ or ‘off.’ In this technology, all forms of data are used through binary digit, i.e., series of ‘0’ and ‘1.’ Methods of Modulation In this section, we will see the different methods of modulation − Amplitude modulation (AM) In this method, the strength or intensity of the signal carrier varies. This represents that the data is being added to the signal. Frequency modulation (FM) In this modulation, the frequency of the carrier waveform varies; this reflects the frequency of the data. Phase modulation (PM) − It is somehow similar to FM, but not the same. Learning working make money

India Nuclear Program India’s first nuclear program started in 1967. On May 18, 1974, India conducted its first nuclear weapon test. The first fusion weapon test on May 13, 1998. India has signed and ratified two treaties, i.e., Biological Weapons Convention and the Chemical Weapons Convention. India has also taken the membership of the Missile Technology Control Regime and is also a subscribing state to The Hague Code of Conduct. Biological Warfare of India Consider the following points relating to the Biological Warfare of India. India is one of the ratifying members of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and it also pledged to abide by its obligations. India possesses the scientific and technological capability to create a biological weapon, but there is as such no plan to do so. In one of the speeches, the former President Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam emphasized that “India will not make biological weapons, as is cruel to human beings”. Chemical Warfare of India Consider the following points relating to the chemical warfare of India − India is capable enough to produce chemical weapons, but it chooses not to do so. India has signed and ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), stating that it does not intend to manufacture chemical weapons. In 1997, India had stock of chemical weapons, i.e., about 1045 tonnes of Sulphur mustard, but by the end of 2006, India has destroyed more than 70 percent of its stocked chemical materials and also promised to destroy the remaining. Nuclear-armed Ballistic Missiles The following table lists down the major nuclear-armed ballistic missiles of India − Name Type Maximum range (km) Status Prithvi-I Short-range 150 Deployed Prithvi-II Short-range 250 – 350 Prithvi-III Short-range 350 – 600 Agni-I Short to medium-range 700 – 1,250 Agni-II Medium-range 2,000 – 3,000 Agni-III Intermediate-range 3,500 – 5,000 Agni-IV Intermediate-range 4,000 Tested successfully Agni-V Intermediate to Intercontinental-range 5,000 – 8,000 Agni-VI Submarine-launched with intercontinental-range (probable MIRV) 6,000 Under development Agni-VI Intercontinental-range (probable MIRV) 8,000 – 12,000 Under development Surya Submarine launched Intercontinentalrange MIRV 10,000 Yet to confirm Surya Intercontinental-range Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) 12,000 – 16,000 Sea-based Nuclear-Armed Ballistic Missiles The following table lists down the major sea-based nuclear-armed ballistic missiles of India − Name Type Maximum range (km) Status Dhanush Short-range 350 Inducted Sagarika (K-15) SLBM 700 Awaiting deployment on INS Arihant K-4 SLBM 3,500 Tested Learning working make money

Science & Technology Notes for UPSC IAS Prelims Job Search Science and Technology is one of the disciplines of modern science under which, we study about the various technologies, their applications, and the development led by these technologies. Science and Technology also includes a wide range of topics such as Space Science Technology, Biotechnology, Nanotechnology, Defense Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Information Technology, E-infrastructure, etc. By considering the diversity of the discipline, we have categorized this tutorial into different chapters for easy understanding. Audience This tutorial is designed exclusively for the students preparing for different competitive exams such as civil services, banking, railway, eligibility test. Prerequisites This tutorial is entirely based on reliable sources including books, articles, and factfiles (taken from the official websites) and prepared in easy and simple language. This tutorial explains the basic concepts and elements of Science and Technology; however, prior experience of reading the basics of Science and Technology is recommended for easy understanding. Learning working make money

Elements: Information Technology In of our previous chapters, we discussed the meaning, benefits, and applications of Information Technology; in this chapter, we will discuss, the major elements, i.e., basically the core concept of Information Technology. There are different subject matters those are being studied in the topic of information technology such as computer technology, electronics, IT industries, etc. Areas Covered by Information Technology Following are the essential topics of Information technology − Electronics Electronic Technology Let us now discuss each area in brief. Electronics The purpose of using the term ‘electronics’ is to enumerate all those devices that we use in our everyday life, such as, watches, TVs, stereo systems, and many more (as shown in the image given below). Further, the electronic devices are used in the design, manufacture, sale, and repair of all faulty products. Because of the advancement in the field of technology, these days, it is possible to develop very small devices, such as small computer, small stereo system, etc. The branch of electronics that does research on the miniaturization of electronic devices is known as ‘microelectronics.’ Following are some of the significant electronic devices that play a major role in different electronic products − Semiconductor device Largely made up of silicon, semiconductor is used in almost every electronic device. Electron tube It is normally a gas-filled tube in which the current of electrons flows between electrodes. However, when the gases are removed from the tube, it acts as a vacuum tube. Analog device It is a device that can measure, record, reproduce, or broadcast continuous information. For, example, radio waves used in the AM radio. Digital device It is a device that works on the sequence of pulse-like signals. The signals are coded to characterize numbers; for example, digital watches, computers, etc. Electronic Technology Following are a few important electronic technologies − Golden-i The Golden-i device consists of various mobile wireless wearable headset computers; the device is operated by voice commands and head movements (as shown in the image given below). DNA Robot It is a device that possibly can treat deadly diseases including cancer. The technology is being researched and developed. e-Writer It is a technology that translates handwriting into plain text on the screen. There is a different handwriting recognition software that senses handwriting and transfers the written text on the screen in the same format. LCD LCD stands for ‘liquid crystal display.’ This technology has two layers of polarized glass through which the liquid crystals block as well pass light. It uses fluorescent light. E.g. LCD TVs and Monitor. LED LED stands for ‘light emitting diodes.’ The LED technology uses light emitting diodes. Encryption It is a technique that converts information or data into a code, in order to prevent unauthorized access. Other Important Areas Covered by Information Technology We will now discuss the other important areas covered by Information Technology − Telecommunication It is the technology or process of communication over a distance by means of cable, telegraph, telephone, or broadcasting. Fiber Optics It is a technology that transmits signals on the principle of Total Internal Reflection (TIR) of light. The technology employs transmission of data in pulses of light form. Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN) ISDN is a set of communication standards that simultaneously transmits voice, video, data, and other network services in digital form over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. Computer A computer is a programmable electronic device that manipulates and manages different sorts of data and information. A computer can store, process, and retrieve the save data. Blue-Gene Computer It is one of the fastest supercomputers developed by the IBM Crop. Cloud Computing Cloud computing is a technique of using a network of remote servers hosted on the Internet with the purpose to store, manage, and process data. The technique keeps data safe and makes your data available anytime and anywhere; in other words, you don’t need to carry your computer device to carry data you access your data on any computer with internet facility. Learning working make money

Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence or simply AI is an experimental science being developed with the purpose to understand the nature of intelligent thought and subsequent action. It is presented by machines or software (computer). In today’s context, largely, but of course not exclusively, Artificial Intelligence is related to Computer. Therefore, study of AI also involves other disciplines including Psychology, Philosophy, Science, etc. (see the diagram given below) − The conceptualization and progressive development of AI was started in 1940s; however, it was John McCarthy, a Stanford University researcher, who first coined this term. John McCarthy is popular as the father of Artificial Intelligence. Definition of Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is a developmental science, and does not come with a complete definition; however, the definition given by Mr. McCarthy is still popular − “An attempt will be made to find how to make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it together for a summer.” Examples of AI Following are a few examples of Artificial Intelligence in today’s world − Voice recognition by a computer system Image interpretation Face recognition Technology of biometrics Driverless vehicles Communication with machine, etc. Applications of AI In today’s technological world, AI is being applied in many different fields. Application of AI Techniques in Network Intrusion Detection Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) protects computer and communication networks from intruders. Following are the major areas where Artificial Intelligence is applied − Application of AI Techniques in Medical Field Application of AI Techniques in Accounting Databases Application of AI Techniques in the Computer Games Application of AI Techniques in enhancing the human intelligence, etc. Data Mining Data mining is an interdisciplinary branch of computer science, which involves a complex computing process and technique to discover the patterns in huge data sets. It is a computing process that involves various methods along with machine learning, statistics, and database systems. Data mining helps in managing large databases. Robot Robot is an electromechanical technology (machine), which is programmed in such a way that it can perform a series of works automatically. A robot can perform a variety of tasks, as programmed through the computer. Areas of AI Following are the major areas wherein, artificial intelligence is used − Understanding the language Problem solving Learning and adoptive system Visual perception Robots Modeling Games Learning working make money

Role of Science & Technology in Today’s Life In today’s world, the role of science and technology is indispensable. We need Science and Technology in every sphere of our life like to treat diseases such as cancer or even to book a cab or train/flight ticket. In fact, without technology (integrated with science), we cannot imagine our life per se. One of the most important aspects of Science and Technology is that it has solution to the difficult of the difficult problems, the problems which have the potential to become major bottlenecks to the overall growth of the country. Some of these problems could be − Health aspects Standard of education Availability of healthy food and safe drinking water Infrastructure On the other hand, once mitigating solutions are found for these problems, then the second major issue is the under-development in the field of scientific research and technology that directly affects the development of the country’s economy, infrastructure, higher education, and a few other fields listed below − Development of nuclear technology Defense technology Development of satellites Biotechnology Meteorological science Space technology Nanotechnology Wireless communication, etc. All these technologies, in turn, provide favorable conditions for the country’s growth and increase healthy competition nationally and also internationally. In today’s world, more often, we get to read or listen that developed countries, developing countries, underdeveloped countries, or even third-world countries, all these designate the level of development of Science and Technology in other countries, they have the influence on. Government has also created an exclusive department to emphasize on the development of Science and Technology and a separate budget is also allocated for the same. Nature of Science & Technology Let us now discuss the nature of Science and Technology. There are normally two types of knowledge required for the overall development of a country − Technical Knowledge It can be defined in the simplest term as – ‘know-how’. It includes ranges of basic skills such as advancement in agriculture, development of chemical industries, medical technology, software engineering, etc. Understanding of the attributes or elements It means, knowledge and understanding of the intelligence of workers, quality of products, value of a firm, effectiveness of market, etc. The uncompetitiveness of any of the attributes or elements leads to knowledge gap and information deficiency, which is directly related to the under-development of the respective country. Likewise, Science and Technology is directly related to the overall development of the country. As a matter of fact, Science and Technology facilitates healthy competition between the different attributes and elements and acts like a platform for a better life. Therefore, in order to alleviate the basic problems of food and supply, safe drinking water, health problems, education, infrastructure, etc., the emphasis and gradual development of Science and Technology is essential. Learning working make money

Nanotechnology Nanotechnology or simply ‘nanotech’ is the engineering of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale. The credit of propagation of the concept of nanotechnology goes to Richard Feynman, the Nobel Prize Winner. In his lecture, There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom, Richard Feynman described the feasibility of synthesis through the direct manipulation of atoms. Further, Richard Feynman has written that − “I want to build a billion tiny factories, models of each other, which are manufacturing simultaneously. . . The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of maneuvering things atom by atom. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be done; but in practice, it has not been done because we are too big.” However, in 1974, Norio Taniguchi first used the term ‘nanotechnology’. One nanometer, i.e., nm is equal to one billionth, or 10−9meter. Likewise, if we compare, then it is a typical carbon-carbon bond length, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, which is in the range 0.12–0.15 nm. Application of Nanotechnology in Different Fields Let us now discuss the application of Nanotechnology in different fields. Nanotechnology is used in the following fields of Science − Surface science Organic chemistry Molecular biology Semiconductor physics Microfabrication Molecular engineering, etc. Nanotechnology is also used for the following purposes − Making sunscreen and cosmetics Packaging of food products (Silver nanoparticles is used in food packaging) In clothing In disinfectants and household appliances, e.g. Silver Nano In carbon nanotubes (for stain-resistant textiles) In treatment of disease and prevention of health issues (Nano-medicine) In various industries In purification processes In environmental cleaning up applications In desalination of water In water filtration In wastewater treatment In groundwater treatment Also used in military goods, Nano-machining of Nano-wires, construction materials, etc. Terms Used in Nanotechnology In terms of applications, following are the major terms used in the Science of Nanotechnology − Nano-medicine Nano-biotechnology Nanoart Green nanotechnology Industrial applications of nanotechnology Energy applications of nanotechnology Potential applications of carbon nanotubes Learning working make money

Space Science & Technology In this chapter, we will discuss what is Space Science and how technology influences Space Science. We will focus more on the outer space, the outer space includes earth and all other planets, stars, galaxies, etc. The outer space also contains low density of particles (largely a plasma of hydrogen and helium) and electromagnetic radiation, neutrinos, dust, cosmic rays, and magnetic fields. During the 20th century, human beings started the physical exploration of space with the help of high altitude balloon flights. Later, these balloon flights replaced by the advance technology, i.e., rocket, space shuttle, etc. In 1961, the Russian scientist Yuri Gagarin attained a landmark achievement by sending an unmanned spacecraft to the outer space. What is a Satellite? Technically, satellite is an advanced technology (machine) launched into the space with the purpose to revolve around the earth and collected the targeted data. Satellite has as such no specific shape; however, it has two essential parts − Antenna − It sends and receives information. Power source − It is either solar panel or battery that provides back up to the functionality of the satellite. Types of Satellite In this section, we will discuss the different types of Satellite. Depending upon the purpose, satellites can be categorized as follows − Communication Satellite It is designed largely for the purpose of communication. It contains the Transmitter and Responder; these instruments help in transmitting the data. Earth Observation Satellite This satellite helps in finding the earth’s resources, and also helps in disaster management, etc. So, it is basically a remote sensing satellite. Navigation Satellite Such satellite helps in navigation. So, it is basically a Global Positioning Satellite. Weather Satellite This satellite is exclusively designed for weather forecast. It has high resolution camera that takes picture of weather system and send. Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbit A Polar Sun-Synchronous Orbit, which is also known as a heliosynchronous orbit is a near polar orbit around the Earth where actually the satellite is placed. The advantage of such orbital placement is that it has constant sunlight that ultimately helps in imaging, spying, and weather satellite. The satellite in sun-synchronous orbit most likely ascends across the equator about twelve times a day; this happen each time at around 15:00 mean local time. A polar sun-synchronous satellite is placed about an altitude of 600–800 km with periods in the 96-100-minute range. Such satellite remains inclined about 98.70. 90o represents a polar orbit and 0o represents an equatorial orbit. Geosynchronous Orbits A geosynchronous orbit has an orbital period, which matches the rotation rate of the Earth. One sidereal day is equal to 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds. Satellites in such orbit are typically launched in an eastward direction. To calculate the distance of a satellite in the geosynchronous orbit, the third law of Kepler is used. Geostationary Orbit Geostationary orbit is a specialized case of geosynchronous orbit. It is a circular geosynchronous orbit, which is inclined 0o to earth’s equatorial plane. A satellite in a geostationary orbit always appears stationary, as it remains at the same point in the sky and observes the surface. Astrobiology Astrobiology is the branch of Science that studies the origin, evolution, and diffusion of life in the Universe. This concept was first explained by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras during the 5th century BC. Later, during the 19th century, Lord Kelvin scientifically explained this term. All these scientists attempted to prove that the life in universe begins from microbes. Cryogenics Cryogenics is the branch of natural science that studies various phenomena at very low temperatures. The literal meaning of cryogenics is – production of freezing cold. Cryogenics has proven to be very useful for Superfluidity which is a highly beneficial property of liquid at cryogenic temperature, as it confronts the rules of surface tension and gravity. Based on the principle of cryogenics, GSLV-D5 was successfully launched in January 2014. In GSLV-D5, cryogenic engine was used. Learning working make money

Information Technology 21st century has come to be known as the era of Information Technology; it is the key driver of economic growth of not only a nation, but rather the whole world. The growth and progress of every sector of the country today depends on the level of Information Technology. Furthermore, technology is not important only at the work place, but also in our everyday life; whether it is working with the microwave oven which is a cooking appliance or a super computer, an appliance is based on information technology, technology helps everywhere. From hi-tech industry to an education system, Information Technology footprints can be seen everywhere. Likewise, Information Technology is one of the essential features for the overall development of a country. Meaning of Information Technology The technology, which is exclusively designed to store, process, and transmit information, is known as Information Technology. The following diagram illustrates the basic features and applications of Information Technology − Though the diagram given above is not inclusive, as it does not include every aspect and application of information technology, but it comprehensively covers the major aspects. Important Features of Information Technology Following are the major features as well as advantages of Information Technology − The development of Information Technology has made education system simpler, easier, and widespread. Now, people of remote areas can also use technology for their children’s education and also avail the benefits of adult education. Diffusion of e-governance on a large scale. Participation of public in governance and policy making. Fast economic development. Development of remote areas. Technology helps the police in nabbing the criminals. The judiciary and other administrative services can also take the help of technology to make work easier and faster. Highly beneficial for the common people, as they can access their rights and can take legal action against the person who violates his/her rights. It increases the happiness and prosperity of not only an individual, but rather the society as a whole. Besides, there are many other advantages too that can be availed in our everyday life only with the further development of information technology. Demerits of Information Technology Information Technology is like a boon on the society. However, it comes with its own disadvantages − As discussed above, with the help of technology, police can arrest criminals and criminal activities; at the same time, technology has also opened the door for criminals as well to practice smart criminal activity. There are chances that children can misuse technology and take a wrong path. Some distorted and perverted minds use technology to demean or defame someone unethically and also illegally. These are basically not demerits but rather the misuse of technology. Information Technology Act, 2000 By understanding the growing demand and applications of Information Technology, the Government of India passed the bill of Information Technology in 2000, which came to be known as the Information Technology Act, 2000. The major features of the Act are − It facilitates e-governance and e-commerce by providing equal legal treatment to users. It made provision to accept electronic records and digital signature. It gave legal approval to electronic business transactions. The Act instructs banks to maintain electronic record and facilitate electronic fund transfer. It also sets up a Cyber Law Appellate Tribunal. Learning working make money

Cyber Crime & Cyber Security The crime that involves and uses computer devices and Internet, is known as cybercrime. Cybercrime can be committed against an individual or a group; it can also be committed against government and private organizations. It may be intended to harm someone’s reputation, physical harm, or even mental harm. Cybercrime can cause direct harm or indirect harm to whoever the victim is. However, the largest threat of cybercrime is on the financial security of an individual as well as the government. Cybercrime causes loss of billions of USD every year. Types of Cybercrime Let us now discuss the major types of cybercrime − Hacking It is an illegal practice by which a hacker breaches the computer’s security system of someone for personal interest. Unwarranted mass-surveillance Mass surveillance means surveillance of a substantial fraction of a group of people by the authority especially for the security purpose, but if someone does it for personal interest, it is considered as cybercrime. Child pornography It is one of the most heinous crimes that is brazenly practiced across the world. Children are sexually abused and videos are being made and uploaded on the Internet. Child grooming It is the practice of establishing an emotional connection with a child especially for the purpose of child-trafficking and child prostitution. Copyright infringement If someone infringes someone’s protected copyright without permission and publishes that with his own name, is known as copyright infringement. Money laundering Illegal possession of money by an individual or an organization is known as money laundering. It typically involves transfers of money through foreign banks and/or legitimate business. In other words, it is the practice of transforming illegitimately earned money into the legitimate financial system. Cyber-extortion When a hacker hacks someone’s email server, or computer system and demands money to reinstate the system, it is known as cyber-extortion. Cyber-terrorism Normally, when someone hacks government’s security system or intimidates government or such a big organization to advance his political or social objectives by invading the security system through computer networks, it is known as cyber-terrorism. Cyber Security Cyber security is a potential activity by which information and other communication systems are protected from and/or defended against the unauthorized use or modification or exploitation or even theft. Likewise, cyber security is a well-designed technique to protect computers, networks, different programs, personal data, etc., from unauthorized access. All sorts of data whether it is government, corporate, or personal need high security; however, some of the data, which belongs to the government defense system, banks, defense research and development organization, etc. are highly confidential and even small amount of negligence to these data may cause great damage to the whole nation. Therefore, such data need security at a very high level. How to Secure Data? Let us now discuss how to secure data. In order to make your security system strong, you need to pay attention to the following − Security Architecture Network Diagram Security Assessment Procedure Security Policies Risk Management Policy Backup and Restore Procedures Disaster Recovery Plan Risk Assessment Procedures Once you have a complete blueprint of the points mentioned above, you can put better security system to your data and can also retrieve your data if something goes wrong. Learning working make money