Category: environmental Studies

Environmental Studies – Water Resources Water is a vital elixir for all living beings. Although it is a renewable resource, scarcity of quality water is felt in many parts of the world. We need water to grow food, keep clean, generate electricity, control fire, and last but not the least, we need it to stay alive. World Ocean water covers about 75 percent of the surface of the earth. Therefore, the earth is called the water planet. Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption. Fresh water is just about 2.7 percent of the total water. Global warming and perpetuating water pollution have made a considerable part of available freshwater unfit for human consumption. As a result, water is very scarce. Steps need to be taken to conserve water. Water is renewable, but its overuse and pollution make it unfit for use. Sewage, industrial use, chemicals, etc. pollute water with nitrates, metals, and pesticides. Use of Water Resources Water resources are used for agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and environmental activities. Majority of the uses require fresh water. However, about 97 percent of water found on the earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water. A little over two-thirds of the available fresh water is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining freshwater is found mainly as groundwater and a negligible portion of it is present on the ground or in the air. Following is a brief account of how water is used in different sectors. Agricultural Use Agriculture accounts for 69 percent of all water consumption basically in agricultural economies like India. Agriculture, therefore, is the largest consumer of the Earth’s available freshwater. By 2050, the global water demand of agriculture is estimated to increase by a further 19% due to irrigational needs. Expanding irrigation needs are likely to put undue pressure on water storage. It is still inconclusive whether further expansion of irrigation, as well as additional water withdrawals from rivers and groundwater, will be possible in future. Industrial Use Water is the lifeblood of the industry. It is used as a raw material coolant, a solvent, a transport agent, and as a source of energy. Manufacturing industries account for a considerable share in the total industrial water consumption. Besides, paper and allied products, chemicals and primary metals are major industrial users of water. Worldwide, the industry accounts for 19 percent of total consumption. In industrialized countries, however, industries use more than half of the water available for human use. Domestic Use It includes drinking, cleaning, personal hygiene, garden care, cooking, washing of clothes, dishes, vehicles, etc. Since the end of World War II there has been a trend of people moving out of the countryside to the ever-expanding cities. This trend has important implications on our water resources. Government and communities have had to start building large water-supply systems to deliver water to new populations and industries. Of all water consumption in the world, domestic use accounts for about 12 percent. Use for Hydropower Generation Electricity produced from water is hydropower. Hydropower is the leading renewable source of electricity in the world. It accounts for about 16 percent of total electricity generation globally. There are many opportunities for hydropower development throughout the world. Today, the leading hydropower generating countries are China, the US, Brazil, Canada, India, and Russia. Use for Navigation and Recreation Navigable waterways are defined as watercourses that have been or may be used for transport of interstate or foreign commerce. Agricultural and commercial goods are moved on water on a large scale in a number of regions in the world. Water is also used for recreational purposes such as boating, swimming, and sporting activities. These uses affect the quality of water and pollute it. Highest priority should be given to public health and drinking water quality while permitting such activities in reservoirs, lakes, and rivers. Overutilization of Surface and Ground Water Water scarcity has become a burning global issue. The UN has held several conventions on water in recent decades. Continuous overutilization of surface and ground water has led to virtual water scarcity in the world today. The depleting sources for high growth in human population over the centuries and increased man-induced water pollution across the world have created unforeseen water scarcity around the globe. As a result, there has been continuous overutilization of the existing water sources due to mammoth growth in world population. Groundwater is the major source of water in many parts of the world. However, there has been continuous depletion of this source due to its overexploitation by rising human population and the rapid rise in industrialization and urbanization in modern times. Consequences of Overutilization Water scarcity now becomes an important topic in international diplomacy. From village to the United Nations, water scarcity is a widely-discussed topic in decision making. Nearly three billion people in the world suffer from water scarcity. International, intrastate and regional rivalries on water are not new to world. The ongoing Jordan River conflict, Nile River conflict, and Aral Sea conflict are cases in point. The intra-state issues such as Cauvery Water dispute in South India, 2000 Cochabamba protests in Bolivia is still a simmering cauldron causing periodic tension at the national and regional levels. According to World Health Organization (WHO) sources, a combination of rising global population, economic growth and climate change means that by 2050 five billion (52%) of the world’s projected 9.7 billion people will live in areas where fresh water supply is under pressure. Researchers expect about 1 billion more people to be living in areas where water demand exceeds surface-water supply. Climate Change Scientists, environmentalists, and biologists worldwide are now alarmed that climate change can have an impact on the drainage pattern and hydrological cycle on the earth thereby severely affecting the surface and groundwater availability. Climate change is believed to rise the global temperature at an increasing pace. Temperature increase affects the hydrological cycle by directly increasing evaporation of available surface water and

Threats to Biodiversity Biodiversity is a paramount factor for the survival of the living world in general and mankind in particular. The fewer species (animals and plants) we have, the fewer people we will have on the earth. During the last few decades, loss of biodiversity is on the rise. Following are the major causes of threat to biodiversity. Habitat Loss Today, major loss to biodiversity in the world has been done by man. Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems. Due to mindless and unsustainable resource use, once productive forest and grasslands have been turned into deserts, and wastelands have increased all over the world. Rapid industrialization, urbanization, and growth in population have resulted in massive deforestation and consequential habitat loss around the world. For instance, mangroves have been cleared for fuel-wood and prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish. Forests all over the world, in particular tropical rainforests such as the Amazon, are under unforeseen threat largely from conversion to other land-uses. Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately10 million species by the year 2050. It is also estimated that at the present rate of extinction about 25 percent of the world’s species will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. Rich biodiversities such as tropical forests, wetlands, and coral reefs world over will constitute the major part of this extinction. Poaching of Wildlife Poaching of wildlife for trade and commercial activities has been on the rise for the last many decades. It has been a significant cause of the extinction of hundreds of species and the endangerment of many more, such as whales and many African large mammal, Asian tigers, etc. Most extinction over the past several hundred years is mainly due to overharvesting for food, fashion, and profit. Illicit trade in wildlife in current times is driving many species of wild animals and plants to extinction. Elephants are poached for ivory; tigers and leopards for their skin; pangolins for meat and scales; and rare timber is targeted for hardwood furniture. The global illegal wildlife trade is estimated to be between $7 billion and $23 billion in illicit revenue annually. It is now considered the most lucrative global crime after drugs, humans, and arms. In 2015, the United Nations General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution for tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife. The Sustainable Development Goals has laid down specific targets to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species. Man-Wildlife Conflict Man-wildlife conflict refers to the interaction between wild animals and people and the consequential negative impact on both of them. Human population growth and the resultant destruction of wildlife habitat for human habitation and economic prosperity create reduction of resources or life to some people and wild animals. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) defines this conflict as “any interaction between humans and wildlife that results in a negative impact on human social, economic, or cultural life, on the conservation of wildlife population, or on the environment.” Although man-wildlife conflict is as old as human civilization, in modern times the degree of conflict has been on the rise due to high rise in human population in the past several centuries. Since human populations expand into wild animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced. Reduction in the availability of natural prey/food sources leads to wild animals seeking alternate sources. Alternately, new resources created by humans draw wildlife resulting in conflict. Competition for food resources also occurs when humans attempt to harvest natural resources such as fish and grassland pasture. There are many consequences of man versus wildlife conflicts. The major consequences are − Destruction of wildlife habitat Injury and loss of life of both humans and wildlife Crop damage and livestock depredation Damage to human property Decrease in wildlife population and reduction in geographic ranges Trophic cascades Apart from the above, there are other causes of threat to biodiversity. Factors such as climate change, invasion of non-native species also add to biodiversity losses in some or the other. Learning working make money

Environmental Studies Tutorial Job Search Environmental studies refer to an extensive and systematic study of nature/environment, its physical, biological, social, and cultural factors, as well as the nature and characteristics of the relationship between man and environment. Environmental studies help us understand the importance of our environment and teaches us to use natural resources more efficiently and embrace a sustainable way of living. How far man influences nature and to what extent nature delivers its bounties constitute another objective of environmental studies. This tutorial is concise and takes an authentic approach to provide a vivid account of the natural environment and related issues. Audience This tutorial is designed keeping in view the prescribed syllabus for Environment and Ecology or Environmental Studies in various colleges and universities. Lucidity in expression and simplicity of language used in this tutorial will acquaint even a youngster with the basic knowledge on Environmental Studies. Prerequisites The readers of this tutorial should have basic knowledge about the environment and environmental phenomena. Readers should understand their physical surroundings and the changes in climatic condition, seasonal differences, etc. Learning working make money

Environmental Studies – Environment The word ‘environment’ is derived from the old French word ‘environer’ – which means to ‘surround, enclose, and encircle’. Environment refers to an aggregate of conditions or surroundings in which living beings such as humans, animals, and plants live or survive and non-living things exist. All living beings including man and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in a number of ways. It is generally equated with nature wherein physical components of the planet earth such as earth, air, water, etc. support and affect life in the biosphere. Environment represents the physical components of the earth, wherein man is an important factor affecting the environment. Environment comprises interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural elements, which are interlinked individually as well as collectively in various ways. Constituents of Environment Physical elements constitute space, landforms, water-bodies, climate, soils, rocks, and minerals. These elements determine the variable character of human habitat, and also its opportunities and limitations. Biological elements include plants, animals, micro-organisms, and man. Cultural elements include economic, social and political conditions which are largely man-made features. Types of Environment Since environment is a combination of physical and biological factors, it contains both living or biotic and non-living or abiotic components. On the basis of this basic structure, environment can be divided into physical or abiotic and living or biotic environment. Physical or Abiotic Environment Physical environment is made up of the following states – solid, liquid, and gas. These three elements signify lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere respectively. On the basis of spatial distribution, smaller units are termed as coastal environment, plateau environment, mountain environment, lake environment, river environment, maritime environment, etc. Living or Biotic Environment Biotic environment consists of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) including human beings as a significant factor. Thus, biotic environment can be of two types such as floral environment and faunal environment. Apart from the above, there are social, cultural, and psychological environment. Social and Cultural Environment This type of environment includes the varied aspects of socio-cultural interactions along with its outcomes such as beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes etc. The tangible and intangible aspects of environment are included in it. Psychological Environment Psychological environment deals with the perception and experiences related to any environmental setting. Some environment may be stimulating and exciting for us, while others may be dull and boring. Psychological environment is more often used in the organizational context. Man-Environment Relationship Man and environment relationship is as old as the evolution of mankind. Since the evolution of man, the physical elements of the planet earth, such as terrain, soil, water, climate, flora and fauna formed man’s environment. During that time man was a typically a ‘physical man’ because of his limited wants, requirements, and total dependence on nature. With the growth in social and economic activities, advancement in technologies, man expanded his own environment through design and skill to have provisions for improved and better food, shelter, access, and comfort or luxuries. Man’s ability to survive in a variety of ecosystem and his unique ability to adapt to a great variety of external conditions make man-environment relationship quite a fascinating area of study. The environment in which man survives and to which he adapts himself and which he influences include physical, socio-cultural, and biological aspects. Man and environment has never been static and a great many factors are responsible for the shifts in man environment relationship. Approaches to Man-Environment Relationship The man and environment relationship can be studied under the following approaches. Determinism − Friedrich Ratzel, the German geographer, was responsible for the development of the concepts of determinism, which was further expanded by Ellsworth Huntington. This approach is based on the concept of ‘nature controls man’ or ‘earth made man’. According to this approach, man is largely influenced by nature. In fact, the determinism states that man is subordinate to natural environment because all aspects of human life such as physical (health and well-being), social, economic, political, ethical, aesthetic, etc. not only depend on but are dominantly controlled by the physical environment. World famous biologist, Charles Darwin, in 1859 laid the foundation stone of the concept of environment influences on man and other organism. Possibilism − Lucien Febvre, the French historian, founded the concept of Possibilism. Possibilism approach in the study of man-environment relationship is an offshoot of the criticism of environmental determinism and the impact of science and technology on such a relationship. Possibilism indicates that the physical environment is passive and man is the active agent at liberty to choose between wide ranges of environmental possibilities. According to it, the pattern of human activity is the result of the initiative and mobility of man operating within the natural framework. Nowadays, the role of natural elements in conditioning, though not controlling human activities, is often lost sight of. Possibilists were largely aware of the limitations of freedom of man to dictate terms to environment. It was agreed upon by the possibilists that man lacks the abilities to fully tame the nature and is not always victorious over it. As result of the above, some geographers vouched for ‘cooperation with nature’ or ‘mutual interaction’ between man and environment. Ecological Approach − This approach is based upon the basic principle of ecology, which is the study of mutual interaction between organisms and physical environment on the one hand, and the interaction among the organism on the other in a given ecosystem. This approach describes man as an integral part of nature or environment. Man, being most skilled and intelligent, has a unique role to play in maintaining a natural environment as healthy and productive as it should be. This approach emphasizes on wise and restrained use of natural resources, application of appropriate environmental management programs, policies and strategies keeping in view certain basic principles of ecology so that already depleted natural resources are replenished, and health and productivity of the nature is restored. What is Environmental Studies? Environmental studies refer to an extensive and systematic study of nature/environment

Environmental Studies – Useful Resources The following resources contain additional information on Environmental Studies. Please use them to get more in-depth knowledge on this. Useful Links on Environmental Studies − Wikipedia Reference for Environmental Studies Useful Books on Environmental Studies To enlist your site on this page, please drop an email to [email protected] Learning working make money

Environmental Studies – Quick Guide Environmental Studies – Environment The word ‘environment’ is derived from the old French word ‘environer’ – which means to ‘surround, enclose, and encircle’. Environment refers to an aggregate of conditions or surroundings in which living beings such as humans, animals, and plants live or survive and non-living things exist. All living beings including man and their environment are mutually reactive, affecting each other in a number of ways. It is generally equated with nature wherein physical components of the planet earth such as earth, air, water, etc. support and affect life in the biosphere. Environment represents the physical components of the earth, wherein man is an important factor affecting the environment. Environment comprises interacting systems of physical, biological, and cultural elements, which are interlinked individually as well as collectively in various ways. Constituents of Environment Physical elements constitute space, landforms, water-bodies, climate, soils, rocks, and minerals. These elements determine the variable character of human habitat, and also its opportunities and limitations. Biological elements include plants, animals, micro-organisms, and man. Cultural elements include economic, social and political conditions which are largely man-made features. Types of Environment Since environment is a combination of physical and biological factors, it contains both living or biotic and non-living or abiotic components. On the basis of this basic structure, environment can be divided into physical or abiotic and living or biotic environment. Physical or Abiotic Environment Physical environment is made up of the following states – solid, liquid, and gas. These three elements signify lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere respectively. On the basis of spatial distribution, smaller units are termed as coastal environment, plateau environment, mountain environment, lake environment, river environment, maritime environment, etc. Living or Biotic Environment Biotic environment consists of plants (flora) and animals (fauna) including human beings as a significant factor. Thus, biotic environment can be of two types such as floral environment and faunal environment. Apart from the above, there are social, cultural, and psychological environment. Social and Cultural Environment This type of environment includes the varied aspects of socio-cultural interactions along with its outcomes such as beliefs, attitudes, stereotypes etc. The tangible and intangible aspects of environment are included in it. Psychological Environment Psychological environment deals with the perception and experiences related to any environmental setting. Some environment may be stimulating and exciting for us, while others may be dull and boring. Psychological environment is more often used in the organizational context. Man-Environment Relationship Man and environment relationship is as old as the evolution of mankind. Since the evolution of man, the physical elements of the planet earth, such as terrain, soil, water, climate, flora and fauna formed man’s environment. During that time man was a typically a ‘physical man’ because of his limited wants, requirements, and total dependence on nature. With the growth in social and economic activities, advancement in technologies, man expanded his own environment through design and skill to have provisions for improved and better food, shelter, access, and comfort or luxuries. Man’s ability to survive in a variety of ecosystem and his unique ability to adapt to a great variety of external conditions make man-environment relationship quite a fascinating area of study. The environment in which man survives and to which he adapts himself and which he influences include physical, socio-cultural, and biological aspects. Man and environment has never been static and a great many factors are responsible for the shifts in man environment relationship. Approaches to Man-Environment Relationship The man and environment relationship can be studied under the following approaches. Determinism − Friedrich Ratzel, the German geographer, was responsible for the development of the concepts of determinism, which was further expanded by Ellsworth Huntington. This approach is based on the concept of ‘nature controls man’ or ‘earth made man’. According to this approach, man is largely influenced by nature. In fact, the determinism states that man is subordinate to natural environment because all aspects of human life such as physical (health and well-being), social, economic, political, ethical, aesthetic, etc. not only depend on but are dominantly controlled by the physical environment. World famous biologist, Charles Darwin, in 1859 laid the foundation stone of the concept of environment influences on man and other organism. Possibilism − Lucien Febvre, the French historian, founded the concept of Possibilism. Possibilism approach in the study of man-environment relationship is an offshoot of the criticism of environmental determinism and the impact of science and technology on such a relationship. Possibilism indicates that the physical environment is passive and man is the active agent at liberty to choose between wide ranges of environmental possibilities. According to it, the pattern of human activity is the result of the initiative and mobility of man operating within the natural framework. Nowadays, the role of natural elements in conditioning, though not controlling human activities, is often lost sight of. Possibilists were largely aware of the limitations of freedom of man to dictate terms to environment. It was agreed upon by the possibilists that man lacks the abilities to fully tame the nature and is not always victorious over it. As result of the above, some geographers vouched for ‘cooperation with nature’ or ‘mutual interaction’ between man and environment. Ecological Approach − This approach is based upon the basic principle of ecology, which is the study of mutual interaction between organisms and physical environment on the one hand, and the interaction among the organism on the other in a given ecosystem. This approach describes man as an integral part of nature or environment. Man, being most skilled and intelligent, has a unique role to play in maintaining a natural environment as healthy and productive as it should be. This approach emphasizes on wise and restrained use of natural resources, application of appropriate environmental management programs, policies and strategies keeping in view certain basic principles of ecology so that already depleted natural resources are replenished, and health and productivity of the nature is restored. What is Environmental Studies? Environmental studies refer to an extensive

Environmental Studies – Pollution and Control Environmental pollution or simply pollution refers to undesirable changes occurring in the physical, chemical, and biological composition of natural environment consisting of air, water, and soil. Pollution also means the presence of harmful pollutants in an environment that makes this environment unhealthy to live in. According to National Academy of Science, USA (1966), pollution is defined as, “An undesirable change in physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water, air, and soil that may harmfully affect human, animal, and plant life, industrial progress, living conditions and cultural assets. Pollution is also viewed as ‘an unfavorable alteration’ in the sustaining and carrying capacity of the natural environment wholly or largely by the byproducts of human activities. Natural environment has an inbuilt capacity to replenish the losses or reduction in its constituents to restore it as sustainable and healthy as required. Ever expanding population and evolution of man into modern homo sapiens have led to rapid urbanization, industrialization and unprecedented rise in human habitations. All these human endeavors have, in turn, virtually perpetuated deforestation, loss of habitats for flora and fauna, depletion of natural resources at a large scale over the last couple of centuries, which have told upon the inherent resilience of the natural environment. As a result, natural environment continues to be undesirably polluted. Pollutants A pollutant is defined as any form of energy or matter or action that causes imbalance or disequilibrium in the required composition of natural objects such as air, water, etc. A pollutant creates damage by interfering directly or indirectly with the biogeochemical process of an organism. Pollutants may be − Natural Pollutants − Natural pollutants are caused by natural forces such as volcanic eruption and forest fire. Man-made Pollutants − These refer to the release of excess amount of gases or matter by human activities. For instance, increase in the number of automobiles adds excess carbon monoxide to the atmosphere causing harmful effect on vegetation and human health. Classification of Pollution Different types of pollution are classified based on the part of the environment which they affect or result caused by a particular pollution. Each type of pollution has its own distinctive cause and consequences. The major types of pollution are as follows. Air pollution Water pollution Noise pollution Soil or land pollution Learning working make money

Environmental Impact Assessment The effects of human activities related to the use of environmental resources on natural environment is called Environmental Impact. The assessment and evaluation of environmental effects of human activities are collectively called Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Environmental Impact Assessment is, therefore, a method of evaluating environmental consequences such as environmental changes which are likely to be caused by the proposed human activities related to land use changes, construction of dams, reservoirs, roads, rails, bridges, industrial locations, urban expansion, etc. and the possible adverse effects of these environmental changes. Environmental changes mean environmental degradation and pollution resulting into ecological imbalance and ecosystem disequilibrium. The environmental impact assessment process began with the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in the US in 1969. Objectives of Environmental Impact Assessment In view of the colossal damage to the environment, there is a felt need for assessing the environmental impacts of developmental activities. EIA is a tool to anticipate the possible damage to the environment caused by developmental projects and schemes, and propose mitigation measures and strategies. EIA exerts to declare a national policy to encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and environment. It promotes efforts to prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and the biosphere, and stimulate the health and welfare of man. It seeks to increase the understanding of ecological system and nature resources important to the nation and to provide for appropriate institutional structure to carry out the objectives. It provides a broad, integrated perspective of a region about to undergo or undergoing developments. EIA ascertains the cumulative impacts from the multiple development in the region. It establishes priorities for environmental protection. It also identifies the positive and negative aspects of any project as well as assesses the policy options and analyzes the impact on the environment therein. Projects that Require Environmental Clearance Manufacturing Industries Mining Thermal Power Plants River Valley Projects Infrastructure and Coastal Regulation Zone Nuclear Power Projects Steps in Environmental Impact Assessment Describe the present environment Describe the project, including purposes and needs Describe the effects of the project Describe the impact, both short term and long term Suggest and compare alternatives (projects) Suggest mitigating activities or remedial measures Learning working make money

Policy and Legislation In the previous chapters, we have learnt about the environment, ecosystem, natural resources, biodiversity and its importance for the living world, especially for mankind. We have also learnt how environmental problems such as pollution and climate change affect and threaten our survival. There is a need for knowing the legal and constitutional provisions for protecting and nurturing the nature. In this chapter, we will learn about such provisions and acts. Need for Policy & Legislation It has always been the desire of man to have clean air, clean water and environment free of toxins and pollutants. In the first half of the last century, there were few legal and constitutional mechanisms in place to protect the environment and the natural resources found in a country. Increasing pollution and mounting pressure on air, water and land quality led to environmental legislations being designed to protect the environment from harmful actions. Due to the current state of the environment, policy makers in every country need to place a top priority on environmental policy. Natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable and wildlife are continuously being under threat. It is estimated that considering the present rate of exploitation of such resources we are going to be devoid of many important resources in near future. Unless we take care of them and resort to a sustainable use, we will make our posterity live without resources. Hence, there is a need for environmental policies and legislations. What is an Environmental Policy? Policy refers to a set of principles or plans agreed upon by a government or an organization to be carried out in a particular situation. Environmental policy is defined as “any action deliberately taken to manage human activities with a view to prevent, reduce, or mitigate harmful effects on nature and natural resources, and to ensure that man-made changes to the environment do not have harmful effects on human or the environment”. Environmental policy usually covers air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, biodiversity protection, and the protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. Proper policies and legislations at the national and the international levels can reduce the venomous pollution and help protect biodiversity and natural resources. What is an Environmental Legislation? Environmental legislation is a set of laws and regulations which aim at protecting the environment from harmful actions. Legislation may take many forms, including regulation of emissions that may lead to environmental pollution, taxation of environment- and health-damaging activities, and establishing the legal framework for trading schemes, for example, carbon emissions. Other actions may rely on voluntary agreements. Among major current legislative frameworks are those relating to environmental permitting, and those mandating environment and health impact assessments. Environmental Protection Act Most of the countries in the world have enacted Environmental Protection Acts considering the need for the protection of our environment. In the US, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1970 promotes the enhancement of the environment and established the President’s Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). It is referred to as the ‘environmental Magna Carta’ in the USA because it was an early step towards the development of US’ environmental policy. Other environmental acts in the USA are as follows. Clean Air Act of 1970 and 1990 Clean Water Act of 1972 Endangered Species Act of 1973 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 National Forest Management Act of 1976 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 Environmental Protection Acts in India In the Constitution of India, it is clearly stated that it is the duty of the state to ‘protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country’. It imposes a duty on every citizen ‘to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife’. There are a number of environmental acts enacted in India. Some of the important legislations in this respect are − Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 Environmental Protection Act, 1986 Handling and Management of Hazardous Waste Rules, 1989 The National Environmental Tribunal Act, 1995 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 Environmental Protection Act, 1986 Environmental Protection Act, 1986, was a statutory response that came into effect a year after the tragic Bhopal Gas Tragedy and is considered an umbrella legislation as it addresses many loopholes in the existing environmental laws. It was enacted as per the spirit of the Stockholm Conference held in June 1972 to take suitable measures for the protection and reinvigoration of environment and related matters. The Environment (Protection) Act is applicable to whole of India including Jammu & Kashmir. It came into force on November 19, 1986. EPA 1986 was enacted largely to implement the decisions made at the UN Conference on Human Environment held at Stockholm in June, 1972. It was to co-ordinate the activities of the various regulatory agencies under the existing laws. It also seeks collection and dissemination of information on environmental pollution. A lot have been done to protect and improve the environment world over. However much remains to be done for building a sustainable society. New mechanisms are being put in place to expedite the process of protecting and improving the environment. For example, new institutions — the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) and the State Environment Management Authorities (SEMA) — in India have been proposed as full-time technical organizations with the capacity to process all environmental clearance applications in a time-bound manner. Learning working make money

Environmental Studies – Mineral Resources Minerals are naturally occurring elements or compounds that have been formed through slow inorganic processes. Modern civilization is based on the use and exploitation of mineral resources. Minerals can be metallic and non-metallic. Minerals are not evenly distributed in the Earth. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits whereas others are devoid of it. Use of mineral resources is an integral part and one of the key premises of development worldwide. With rapid increase in population and a more rapid increase in society’s development needs, the requirements for minerals have grown and diversified manifold. Extraction of minerals is carried out through mining. Minerals are extracted from beneath the surface, processed, and used for different purposes. Mineral resources, however, are exhaustible and finite, which means excessive use may affect their availability in the future. Exploitation of Mineral Resources Exploitation of mineral refers to the use of mineral resources for economic growth. Exploitation of mineral resources at a mindless speed to meet the growing needs of modern civilization has resulted in many environmental problems. Although, the exploitation of minerals began at a slow pace during the industrial revolution in Western countries, during the 20th century, the exploitation of some minerals, especially the fossil fuels increased exponentially to meet the growing energy need. Today, about 80% of the world’s energy consumption is sustained by the extraction of fossil fuels, which consists of oil, coal, and gas. Consequences of Exploitation of Mineral Resources. Excessive exploitation of mineral resources has led to the following severe problems. Deforestation and desertification Extinction of species Rapid depletion of high grade minerals Forced migration Wastage of upper soil layer and vegetation Soil erosion and oil depletion Ozone depletion Greenhouse gas increase Environmental pollution Natural hazards, etc. Learning working make money