Discuss Engineering Ethics Engineering Ethics is the study of decisions, policies and values that are morally desirable in engineering practice and research. This tutorial covers all the major topics of professional and engineering ethics. It covers the ethics and morals an engineer should follow in his profession. Learning working make money
Engineering Ethics – Moral Leadership Engineers, within their communities and professions contribute to technological process, as managers, business entrepreneurs, corporate consultants, academics and government officials they provide many forms of leadership in developing and implementing technology. Leadership can be understood as success in moving a group collectively, towards goals. Moral leaders, are the individuals who direct, motivate, organize, creatively manage, or in other ways move groups towards morally valuable goals. Leaders might be in position of authority within a corporation, or they might not be. Leadership can be shown by individuals participating at all levels of organizations. Morally creative leaders Moral leaders are morally creative. This does not mean that they discover or improvise new moral values from scratch. Moral values are the product of centuries and millennia of gradual development, not instantaneous invention. Moral creativity consists in identifying the most important values that apply in a particular situation, bringing them into focus through effective communication within groups and forming workable commitments to implement them. Moral creativity is achieving success through new ways of thinking with standard moral values. This is achieved by identifying new possibilities for applying, extending and putting values into practice rather than inventing new values for temporary comforts. But, this requires fresh moral insights with deeper commitments grounded in integrity. Participation in Professional Societies Professional Societies do more than just promoting continuing education for their members. They also serve to unify a profession, and to speak and act on behalf of it. Professional societies provide a forum for communicating, organizing and mobilizing change within and by large groups, which has a moral dimension. After few incidents, many of the tensions existed in professional societies are because of the uncertainties about their involvement in moral issues. Effective professional activity whether in Engineering or any other profession, requires a substantial degree of trust from clients and the public. Total absence of such trust would undermine the possibility of making contracts, engaging in cooperative work, exercising professional autonomy free of excessive regulation and working under humane conditions. Building and sustaining that trust is an important responsibility shared by all engineers. It is also an area where moral leadership within professional societies is really important. Leadership in Communities In communities and groups, the issues that bother and that are important should be informed to everyone. But the stronger obligations arise for those who by professional background are well grounded in specific issues as well as for those who have time to train themselves as Public advocates. It shows that there is certainly a need for moral leadership in identifying and expanding the areas of possible good that can be achieved. Ideals of Voluntary service The need for moral leadership in Engineering, emphasizes the need for involvement in professional societies and in community service. The leadership should have substantial involvement in professional societies which, in addition to furthering technical knowledge and representing engineers collectively, help establish high standards of moral integrity within the profession. The moral leadership should also have some involvement in community service. Moral leadership does not consist of moral elitism and dominance, but instead moral creativity in helping to guide, organize and stimulate groups toward morally desirable goals. Sample Code of Conduct The professional societies for engineers have formulated few codes of ethics which are expected to be followed by an engineer of the particular discipline. Following are a few societies that look into the discipline in Engineering − NSPE − National Society of Professional Engineers IEEE − The Institute of Electrical and Electronics engineering AIChE − American Institute of Chemical Engineers ASCE − American Society of Civil Engineers ASME − American Society of Mechanical Engineers ACM/IEEE/CS − Joint Task Force on Software Engineering Ethics and Professional Practices All these societies have proposed different codes of ethics expecting adherence from the Engineers, to the highest standard of ethical conduct. This not only helps the societies but also the Engineers. The NSPE (National Society of Professional Engineers) has formulated codes as engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all the people. Accordingly, the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness and equity and must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety and welfare. The fundamental things to be kept in mind, while engineers fulfill their professional duties are the following − Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public. Perform services only in area of their competence. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees. Avoid deceptive acts. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation and usefulness of the profession. All the other societies have proposed the code of ethics to be followed in their respective disciplines, by the engineers. The professional ethics should be accompanied by moral concerns, in acting responsibly towards the profession while being in ethical limits. Learning working make money
Engineering Ethics – Confidentiality The other important responsibility of an employee or an engineer is to maintain the confidentiality of the organization or the employer. To understand confidentiality, we need to understand what is Intellectual Property. Intellectual Property This term is often used in the world of business. Intellectual property refers to creations of mind such as inventions; literary and artistic works, designs; and symbols, names and images used in commerce. The ideas and formulations in one’s mind are put in action or may not be done so, but that idea is the result of one’s intelligence and it cannot be stolen. Such problems are mostly encountered by scientists, engineers, business people or the upcoming entrepreneurs, and such. Intellectual Property, i.e., IP is protected by the law; patents, trademarks and copyrights enable people to earn recognition from what they invent or create. While being associated with an organization, an engineer is expected to follow a few moral rules and avoid affecting the intellectual properties of anyone. These when adopted by an organization, through some agreement, it becomes the responsibility of every employee to maintain the confidentiality throughout that project. Confidentiality When the word confidential is added to any information, it means that it should not be shared with one and all. It is mostly a trade secret. Maintaining confidentiality and avoiding harmful conflicts of interest are especially important aspects of teamwork and trustworthiness. Confidentiality is that practice which helps to keep secret all information deemed desirable to keep secret. The maintenance of secrecy refers to the unrevealing of any data concerning the company’s business or technical processes that are not already in public knowledge. Every company has some knowledge and can identify the individuals and groups that might have access to a particular set of information. The members of such groups share the responsibility of maintaining confidentiality. Types of information The confidential information can be understood as Privileged Information and Proprietary information. Privileged information means “available only on the basis of special privilege” such as a privilege accorded an employee working on a special assignment. Proprietary information is the information that a company owns or is the proprietor of, and hence is a term carefully defined by property law. It is simply called trade secret. The patents legally protect the products from being manufactured and sold by other competitor unless a patent holder grants permission. Whereas the trade secret, has no such legal protection. Hence a reverse engineering can be done by analyzing a product to estimate its manufacturing so as to duplicate it or to develop something more than that, without any kind of permissions. Changing jobs The obligation to protect confidential information does not cease when employees change jobs. The former employees are bound by moral rules and are not supposed to indulge in revealing or selling such information to the new employers. An employee may change his job for his personal financial or career-oriented growth. But that should never effect the old company, which he used to work for. An engineer’s knowledge base generates an intuitive sense of what designs will work and will not work, and trade secrets form part of this knowledge base. It is usually considered a better deal, if the employee is not allowed to change the job until the project finishes; this helps in avoiding unnecessary revelation of information. Management Policies To protect the personal interest and rights of engineers and other employees while recognizing the rights of employers, employment contracts with a few restrictions imposed, helps. Usually, those restrictions centered on the geographical location of future employers, the length of time after leaving the present employer before one can engage in certain kinds of work and the type of work it is permissible to do for future employers. But such contracts threaten the right of individuals to pursue their careers freely and hence courts tend not to recognize them as binding. The employers might try different plans such as an agreement not to work for similar project for few years or to be an outside consultant for the same project until it finishes so as to make them abide morally. Other tactics like restricting trade secrets to employees where absolutely essential might result in lessening the knowledge base of engineers involved in research and development. One potential solution for employers might be generating a sense of professional responsibility among the staff that reaches beyond merely obeying the directives of current employers. Justification The primary justification is to respect the autonomy (freedom, self-determination) of individuals and corporations and to recognize their legitimate control over some private information concerning themselves. The rights and duties of autonomy along with its utilities are to be observed. The trust and trustworthiness can grow once confidentiality is maintained properly. Conflicts of Interest A person may have different types of interests. Such interests can be pursued according to the will, convenience and the laws prevailing. A person working in an organization might have multiple interests related to the job he is doing; if he does some side business which means he might be a competitor or he might work with a competitor, it might pose a problem for the employer. Such an employee is usually fired from the organization. Thus, we can refine our definition of conflicts of interest by saying that they typically arise when the following two conditions are met − The professional is in a relationship or role that requires exercising good judgment on behalf of the interests of an employer or client. The professional has some additional or side interest that could threaten good judgement in serving the interests of the employer or client. Dilemma There occurs a usual dilemma between conflicts of interest and conflicting interests. To get a clear understanding between both, let us consider two examples. Example 1 Let us consider a girl who needs to choose from among her interests in order to fit in her timetable. She wants to attend the exam in college, to attend the music
Responsibilities of Engineers In our previous chapters, we discussed many things about the ethics to be possessed by an engineer. The responsibilities of an engineer, if not taken proper care of, results in the adverse effects just like the above discussed incidents. In this chapter, we will discuss the responsibilities of an engineer. Loyalty to corporations, respect for authority, collegiality and other teamwork are a few important virtues in the field of Engineering. Professionalism in engineering would be threatened at every turn in a corporation driven with powerful egos. Robert Jackall, a Sociologist criticizes professionalism saying, “what is right in the corporation is what the guy above you wants from you. That’s what morality is in the corporation.” In order to understand how good the ethical factors in a corporate world should be, let us consider the following points − Ethical values in their full complexity are widely acknowledged and appreciated by managers and employees alike. In an ethical corporate climate, the use of ethical language is honestly applied and recognized as a legitimate part of corporate dialogue. Top management sets a moral tone in words, in policies and by personal example. The procedures should be followed for conflict resolution. Loyalty Loyalty is the faithful adherence to an organization and the employer. Loyalty to an employer can be either of the two types − Agency-loyalty − Agency-loyalty is acting to fulfil one’s contractual duties to an employer. This is entirely a matter of actions, such as doing one’s job and not stealing from one’s employer, irrespective of the motive behind it. Attitude-loyalty − Attitude-loyalty has a lot to do with attitudes, emotions and a sense of personal identity as it does with actions. It can be understood that people who work grudgingly and spitefully are not loyal; in spite of the fact they may adequately perform all their work responsibilities and hence manifest agencyloyalty. Collegiality Collegiality is the term that describes a work environment where responsibility and authority are shared among the colleagues. When Engineering codes of ethics mention collegiality, they generally cite acts that constitute disloyalty. The disloyalty of professionals towards an organization, reflects the attitude they have towards the work environment for the salaries they are paid and the trust the company has for them. The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code, for example, states that “Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice or employment of other engineers. Engineers who believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present such information to the proper authority for action”. The main factors that help in maintain harmony among members at a workplace are − Respect Commitment Connectedness In detail, the colleagues are to be respected for their work and contribution towards the organizational goals and should be valued for their professional expertise and their dedication towards the social goods promoted by the profession. Commitment observed in the sense of sharing a devotion to the moral ideals inherent in one’s profession. The coordination among all the members at a workplace or the awareness of participating in cooperative projects based on shared commitments and mutual support, also encourages the quality of the work. Respect for Authority In order to meet the organizational goals, the professionals should possess respect for authority. The levels of authority maintained by the organization provides a means for identifying areas of personal responsibility and accountability. Following are the major types of authority − Executive Authority − The corporate or institutional right given to a person to exercise power based on the resources of an organization. Expert Authority − This is the possession of special knowledge, skill or competence to perform a particular task or to give sound advice. According to the goals of the company, the hierarchical authority is distributed. A service oriented or engineer-oriented company concentrates on the quality of the products which are decided by the engineers as they are the subject matter experts. Whereas a company when it is customer-oriented company, focuses primarily on the satisfaction of the customers. Hence the goal of the company decides the power between a General Manager and a Technical Manager or an Engineer. Collective Bargaining It is the responsibility of an organization to look into the welfare of the section of people working in it. Their issues need to be discussed. When we discuss issues, there can be issues which need to be discussed among the employees themselves and resolutions can be found for the same. However, there can be issues which might require the intervention of the management. In order to deal with such complex situations, an Employee Union is formed wherein, each employee becomes a member and a leader is elected to represent the group whenever needed. At the time of conflicts or arguments, there will arise the need for negotiation between the parties. Conflicting situations which call for negotiation might occur on areas related to pay scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, rights in work places or company affairs, etc. The process of voluntary negotiations between the employers and a group of employees to resolve the conflicts is called Collective Bargaining. The parties often refer to the result of the negotiation as a Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA) or as a Collective Employment Agreement (CEA). The underlying idea of collective bargaining is that the employer and employee relations should not be decided unilaterally or with the intervention of any third party. Both the parties must reconcile their differences voluntarily through negotiations, yielding some concessions and making sacrifices in the process. Both should bargain from a position of strength. There should be no attempt to exploit the weaknesses or vulnerability of one party. With such an awareness, the necessity of formation of Unions was observed in all the organizations and the idea was strengthened to form larger labor unions. Both parties have, more or less, realized the importance of peaceful co-existence for mutual benefit and continued progress. Types of Collective
Engineering Ethics – Moral Autonomy Moral Autonomy is the philosophy which is self-governing or self-determining, i.e., acting independently without the influence or distortion of others. The moral autonomy relates to the individual ideas whether right or wrong conduct which is independent of ethical issues. The concept of moral autonomy helps in improving self-determination. Moral Autonomy is concerned with independent attitude of a person related to moral/ethical issues. This concept is found in moral, ethical and even in political philosophy. Moral Autonomy – Skills Needed In this section, let us discuss the skills needed for moral autonomy. Ability to relate the problems with the problems of law, economics and religious principles − It is essential to have the ability to analyze a problem and finding the relation with the existing law or the topic of issue with the existing principles on that topic. The ability to distinguish between both of them and finding the moral reasons. Skill to process, clarify and understand the arguments against the moral issues − If the issue is against some moral values or the ethical values to be followed in the society, then clarity should be maintained about the differences and similarities. Both of these differences and similarities are to be judged based on why they are a matter of concern and in what aspect. Ability to suggest the solutions to moral issues on the basis of facts − If the moral issues are not fulfilling and needs to be, then the solutions are to be suggested according to the moral issues based on the facts and truths of the issue. These suggestions must be consistent and must include all the aspects of the problem. No partiality is to be allowed in any such aspect. Must have the imaginative skill to view the problems from all the viewpoints − After having known about the facts and illusions of the issue, a clear understanding is attained in viewing the problem in all kinds of viewpoints. This enables one to be able to suggest a proper alternative solution. Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble − When the whole analysis is made considering all the viewpoints of the issue, the final output might be or might not be pleasing to the persons involved. Hence while declaring the judgment or the decisions taken, a detailed description of the actions done should be given, while the actions ought to be done should be presented in a better way, to ensure others that the decisions have been taken without any partialities towards any party. Tolerance while giving moral judgment, which may cause trouble − When the whole analysis is made considering all the viewpoints of the issue, the final output might be or might not be pleasing to the persons involved. Hence while declaring the judgment or the decisions taken, a detailed description of the actions done should be given, while the actions ought to be done should be presented in a better way, to ensure others that the decisions have been taken without any partialities towards any party. Skills for Improving Moral Autonomy Moral autonomy reflects the concept of individuality. This relates to the idea of building one’s self with the moral values one has while developing psychologically. To have moral autonomy in all the aspects, one should have a lot of patience and interest. One should adhere to the basic principles of humanity and should be strict with the Don’ts he has in mind and liberal with his Do’s. The kindness towards his fellow beings is also an important concept to be kept in mind. Inculcation of all these important qualities, enhances the skills of Moral autonomy in a person. A Person must have adequate knowledge and understanding about the use of ethical language so as to defend or support his views with others. He must have better knowledge in understanding the importance of suggestions and better solutions while resolving moral problems and also about the importance of tolerance on some critical situations. Above all, one must understand the importance of maintaining moral honesty and should be liberal to understand the human behavior under certain circumstances. Learning working make money
Engineering Ethics – Kohlbergâs Theory Lawrence Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University during the early 1970s and was famous for his works on developmental psychology. He conducted many studies at Harvardâs Center for Moral Development and proposed a theory on moral development which is popularly known as Kohlbergâs theory. His theory of moral development was dependent on the thinking of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and the American philosopher John Dewey. He was also inspired by James Mark Baldwin. These men had emphasized that human beings develop philosophically and psychologically in a progressive fashion. Lawrence Kohlbergâs Theory Kohlberg proposed that people progress in moral reasoning based on their ethical behavior. He postulated this theory based on the thinking of younger children throughout their growing period as adults. He conveyed that younger children make judgment based on the consequences that might occur and the older children make judgment based on their intuitions. He believed that there are six stages of moral development which are further classified into three levels. The following illustration shows the different levels. The process being discussed here is about the judgment made by the thinker about the protagonist in a given situation. The steps of the thinking process show the moral development of the thinker. Pre-conventional Level This can be understood as the first level of moral thinking, which is generally found at Elementary school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave based on the direct consequences that might occur. There are two sub-stages in this. Avoid Punishments A thinker at this stage generally thinks and believes that the judgment are to be made as per the socially acceptable norms as they are said so by some higher official (a teacher or a parent). This is a child-like obedience, in order to avoid punishments. These thoughts are based on the idea that the protagonist should not disobey the law or rules. Selfâinterest A thinker at this stage, shows interest in making decisions according to the rewards they get in exchange. This second stage is characterized by a view that right behavior means acting in one”s own best interests. In this stage, they tend to follow the rules of authority because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. Conventional Level This can be understood as the second level of moral thinking, which is generally found at the primary and high school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave based on the want to please others. There are two sub-stages in this. Getting people to like them At this stage, the ideas of the society are considered. This level can be that where the protagonist behaves on account of the moral grounds which people decide for decision making. This decision may or may not support the law. Whatever the result is, the thinking process is based on how to impress others or society and on how to please the people around. Maintain functioning in society A thinker at this stage, considers to follow the rules for the good of the society. The moral grounds on how people in the society will consider the job done will be the priority, because the thinker believes that a social order is maintained by abiding by the rules. Hence a thinker sticks to the idea that the protagonist should follow the moral values. The thinkerâs behavior is driven by the authority while his thinking conforms to the social order. Post-Conventional Level This can be understood as the third level of Moral thinking, which is generally found after the high school level. The thinker at this stage tends to think and behave based on a sense of justice. There are two sub-stages in this. Reject rigidity of laws In this level, the thinker uses his moral thinking skills at a commendable pace. He starts to feel for the protagonist based on moral grounds. He also might have an opinion that the rules have to be changed according to humanitarian values. The thinker rejects the rigidity of the existing laws and rules at this stage. Sense of justice This is the pinnacle stage of Moral development where the thinker feels a sense of justice for the protagonist. The thinker has great moral values that he keeps himself free from the external factors that might influence his thinking process. These are the three main sections of moral development proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Let us now try to have some detailed idea on this with an example. Learning working make money
Engineering Ethics – Heinzâs Dilemma Lawrence Kohlberg quoted an example for his Moral development theory. This example is popularly called the Heinzâs Dilemma. Story of Heinz A story of a middle-aged ordinary middle-class man, called Heinz is considered as an example. Heinz is an ordinary man having a wife. His wife suffers from a dreadful disease. Doctors believe that a special drug which was invented recently and is available at the BIG pharma store, can only save his wife. When Heinz went to buy the drug, the drug-seller costed it around $2,000 dollars, while the actual manufacturing cost of the drug is $20 dollars. Heinz borrowed the money from friends and lenders and could finally collect only $1,000 dollars. Though Heinz pleaded a lot, the greedy drug-seller refused to sell the drug at low cost. Now, Heinz had no other option but to steal the drug from the shop to save the life of his wife. Is this a better option to do? What is your judgment? Now, to solve this Heinzâs dilemma, a thinker has the following options. Options for the Thinker In this section, we will discuss the options for the Thinker. Heinz should not steal the drug because it is the disobedience of law. Heinz can steal the drug, but should be punished by the law. Heinz can steal the drug and no law should punish him. The answer which you choose indicates your moral development. Each answer has its consequences and explanation. Let us go through the answers. Heinz should not steal the drug because it is the disobedience of law. This decision makes it impossible for Heinz to save his wife. His wife dies and the rich drug-seller becomes richer. Though the law was obeyed, no moral justice was done. This is a pre-conventional level of moral thinking. Heinz can steal the drug, but should be punished by the law. This decision helps Heinz save his wife, but Heinz will be kept in prison. Though Heinz took a moral decision, he had to undergo the punishment. This is a Conventional level of moral thinking. Heinz can steal the drug and no law should punish him. This decision lets Heinz save his wife and both of them can live happily. This thinking is based on the thought that the rigidity in law should be rejected and justice should be done on moral grounds. This is a post-conventional level of moral thinking. Learning working make money
Engineering Ethics – Rights of Engineers The basic rights of engineers include the right to live freely and pursue their legitimate interests as any human being, along with the right to be against racial or sexual discrimination, receiving one’s salary according to the work, choosing of political activities, etc., as other employees. Besides all of them, engineers have some special rights as professionals. Professional Rights The rights that engineers have as professionals are called Professional Rights. These professional rights include − The basic right of professional conscience. The right of conscientious refusal. The right of professional recognition. Right of Professional Conscience This is a basic right which explains that the decisions taken while carrying on with the duty, where they are taken in moral and ethical manner, cannot be opposed. The right of professional conscience is the moral right to exercise professional judgement in pursuing professional responsibilities. It requires autonomous moral judgement in trying to uncover the most morally reasonable courses of action, and the correct courses of action are not always obvious. There are two general ways to justify the basic right of professional conscience. The exercise of moral reflection and conscience that justifies professional duties is necessary, with respect to that duty. The general duties to respect persons and rule-utilitarianism would accent the public good of allowing engineers to pursue their professional duties. Right of Conscientious Refusal The right of conscientious refusal is the right to refuse to engage in unethical behavior. This can be done solely because it feels unethical to the doer. This action might bring conflicts within the authority-based relationships. The two main situations to be considered here are − When it is already stated that certain act is unethical in a widely shared agreement among all the employees. When there occurs disagreement among considerable number of people whether the act is unethical. Hence it is understood that engineers and other professionals have a moral right to refuse the unethical acts such as bribery, forging documents, altering test results, lying, padding payrolls or coercing employees into acting by threatening, etc. Right to Recognition An engineer has a right to the recognition of one’s work and accomplishments. An engineer also has right to speak about the work one does by maintaining confidentiality and can receive external recognition. The right for internal recognition which includes patents, promotions, raises etc. along with a fair remuneration, are also a part of it. The fulfillment of right to recognition motivates the employee to be a trustful member of the organization, which also benefits the employer. This makes the employee morally bound which enhances the ethical nature to be abide by the professional ethics. Employee Rights An employee right can be any right, moral or legal, that involves the status of being an employee. They involve some professional rights also, such as the right to be paid according to the salary mentioned in one’s contract. Privacy and equal opportunity can be considered essential rights too. Privacy The right to privacy refers to the right of having a private life, off the job. It is the right to control the access to and the use of information about oneself. The examples of situations where the functions of employers conflict the rights of employees will be when the job-related queries or any other tests conducted in a job, includes questions relating to personal life such as alcohol usage or sexual conduct. The instances when a supervisor unlocks and checks the desk of his subordinate in his absence or when the management questions about his likes, dislikes or posts on social media regarding his personal opinions where it has nothing to do with the company. Employers should view the relationship with their employees concerning confidentiality that cannot break the trust. The personal information in such cases is given based on the special professional relation and trust. Equal Opportunity – Non-discrimination The demeaning of a person based on trivial factors such as one’s sex, race, skin color, age or political or religious outlook can be understood as Discrimination. Such a discrimination should never be allowed at any workplace; this is where everyone has to be treated equally. These things internally affect the person’s self-identity and self-respect which is pernicious within the work environment, where the work itself should represent a person’s self-image. According to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, “It shall be unlawful employment practice for an employer to fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise to discriminate against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privileges of employment, because of such individual’s race, color, religion, sex or national origin”. Equal Opportunity – Sexual Harassment In today’s world, there is an increase in the number of sexual harassment cases across the world. This is quiet an unfortunate scenario. There were a number of cases where the charges were levied since last two decades, which kept on growing. A definition of Sexual harassment is, “The unwanted imposition of sexual requirements in the context of a relationship of unequal power”. Sexual harassment is a display of power and aggression through sexual means. It takes two forms, quid pro quo and hostile work environment. Quid Pro Quo includes cases where supervisors require sexual favors as a condition for some employment benefit (a job, promotion or raise). It can take the form of a sexual threat (of harm) or sexual offer (of a benefit in return for a benefit). Hostile work Environment by contrast, is any sexually oriented aspect of the workplace that threatens employee”s rights to equal opportunity. It includes unwanted sexual proposals, lewd remarks, sexual leering, posting nude photos and inappropriate physical contact. Equal opportunity – Affirmative Action Affirmative action refers to the preference given to a person or a group who was denied equal importance in the past. For example, the women and the minority communities were not given equal treatment and were ill-treated in the past. So to compensate that, amendments were made in recent
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Engineering Ethics – Moral Issues A moral issue can be understood as an issue to be resolved not only by considering the technical stuff but also by keeping moral values in mind. To be more precise, let us consider the definition in general. “Moral issue is a working definition of an issue of moral concern is presented as any issue with the potential to help or harm anyone, including oneself.” Types of Moral Issues There are mainly two types of Moral issues that we mostly come across while keeping the ethical aspects in mind to respond. They are − Micro-ethics This approach stresses more on the problems that occur on a daily basis in the field of engineering and its practice by engineers. Macro-ethics This approach deals with social problems which are unknown. However, these problems may unexpectedly face the heat at both regional and national levels. Examples Let us now understand a few examples related to moral issues. Example 1 After a recent collapse of a structure in which many people died, an Engineer came to know about a bridge which is marginally safe. He informed his superior who asked him to stay calm and not to discuss with anyone, while waiting for the next year budget sessions to get some financial help for the repair required. What should the engineer do? Example 2 What should an Engineer who observes his colleague copying confidential information unauthorized, do immediately? If he chooses to stop his friend, what if this gets repeated without his notice? If he chooses to report the management, what if his friend loses the job? Which is morally correct? Example 3 An engineer who develops a proto-type for the project, loses it due to a mishap exactly the day before the submission. Is it morally correct to outsource the prototype of the project and reduce the risks of job insecurity? What should he do? These are the few examples just to understand the kind of moral dilemmas. There might be one or more correct answers at times. There can be some other way around to deal with the issue, which one can’t easily notice. However, the decisions have to be made by following a slow and clear process in order to avoid further problems and also to solve this in a manner that leads to no regrets. Types of Inquiries The issues can be resolved by following an investigation procedure, step by step in order to have a clear understanding towards the issue. Here we have three different types of inquiries. Judging the issues has to be followed by a systematic procedure to avoid any flaws. Engineering ethics involves investigations into values, meanings and facts. Following are the different types of inquiries made for this. Normative inquiries Conceptual inquiries Factual or descriptive inquiries Normative Inquiries Normative Inquiry refers to the description that describes what one ought to do under a specific circumstance. This is the expected ideal response, which might differ from what one believes to be right or wrong. This list identifies and justifies the morally desirable nature for guiding individuals or groups. This includes the responsibility of engineers to protect the public safety and how they should respond under such dangerous practices. Normative inquiries also quote the laws and procedures that affect the engineering practice on moral grounds. They refer to the thought process where the moral rights are to be implemented in order to fulfill their professional obligations. Conceptual Inquiries Conceptual Inquiry refers to the description of the meaning of concepts, principles and issues related to engineering ethics. The ethics that an engineer should possess to protect the safety, health and welfare of the public, etc. are described under conceptual inquiries. It describes what safety is and mentions the marginal issues of safety along with the precautions an engineer should take to avoid risk. Conceptual inquiries mention the moral aspects of bribery and how its effects, along with the professional ethics and professionalism. Factual and Descriptive Inquiries Factual Inquiry or the descriptive inquiry help to provide the facts for understanding and finding solutions to the value based issues. The engineer has to conduct factual inquiries by using scientific techniques. This helps in providing the information regarding the business realities such as engineering practice, history of engineering profession, the effectiveness of professional societies, the procedures to be adopted when assessing risks and psychological profiles of engineers. Let us now go through the concept of Moral dilemma that a person faces when confronted with a situation. Learning working make money