Category: computer Fundamentals

Computer – Software ”; Previous Next Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. There are two types of software − System Software Application Software System Software The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc. Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software − Close to the system Fast in speed Difficult to design Difficult to understand Less interactive Smaller in size Difficult to manipulate Generally written in low-level language Application Software Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft”s notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the following − Payroll Software Student Record Software Inventory Management Software Income Tax Software Railways Reservation Software Microsoft Office Suite Software Microsoft Word Microsoft Excel Microsoft PowerPoint Features of application software are as follows − Close to the user Easy to design More interactive Slow in speed Generally written in high-level language Easy to understand Easy to manipulate and use Bigger in size and requires large storage space Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Random Access Memory (RAM) ”; Previous Next What is RAM (Random Access Memory)? RAM is a computer”s volatile memory which stores data temporarily; once power turned off, the data which is inside the RAM gets erased. It is also known as primary or temporary memory. RAM stores the data that is actively being used during the execution of a program or instructions. During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction access. RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution. Once we start the computer; system necessary files, programs and operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of the computer. The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly. How does RAM Work? RAM consists of a grid of cells, each with a unique address, allowing data to be read or written in any order, the CPU requests data from RAM, which is delivered at high speed, making it essential for multitasking and running complex applications. RAM is the computer”s internal memory which stores different types of data and information as per the requirement. It is also considered as read/write memory. The data access in RAM is random. This means that we can access any random location in the memory without even knowing the address of the previous location. Since RAM is a volatile memory hence, a backup is present in most of the systems in the form of an uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Moreover, the speed and performance of a system are directly proportional to the size of the RAM. Characteristics of RAM Key Characteristics of RAM are described below − Multitasking − RAM does multitasking and fast execution of instructions or programs. Prevents system crashes − RAM prevents system crashes and slowdowns during intensive tasks. High-performance − It provides high performance for the execution of gaming and visual applications, where large amounts of data must be processed swiftly. System Support − RAM can perform write and erase operations. Additional RAM − To maintain the system’s speed and performance; additional RAM can be added on. Faster data accessing − It facilitates CPU by accessing data quickly to support faster execution. RAM is faster than SSD. Cost − RAM is not costly as compared to SSD. Types of Random Access Memory Different types of RAM are categorised in the below image SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) Static RAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops for primary storage and is volatile. It is a type of semiconductor memory. Each bit is stored using bistable latching circuitry, making it extremely fast so known as cache memory. It is commonly used as a CPU cache and is typically located in L2 or L3. It stores data in the latch as long as the computer is on. SRAM is more expensive and requires more power than DRAM. It serves as cache memory in a computer system. SRAM requires more transistors than DRAM. It is faster than DRAM because of the latching mechanism. SRAM employs 6 transistors per data bit while DRAM uses one transistor per bit. Characteristics of SRAM Some of the key characteristics of SRAM are as follows − SRAM has a memory cell which consists of 6 transistors. SRAM consist flip-flop to store data units. SRAM is dedicatedly designed for the CPU and works as a cache memory. It accesses data in less time; faster than DRAM, and takes very less time to access data. Storing a large amount of data on a single chip is not possible, so more chips are needed. SRAM is expensive. It requires a regular power supply to store data. SRAM generates more heat. Contents remain as it is until power is ON. Types of SRAM SRAM can be further classified into the following types − Synchronous − Synchronous SRAM works jointly with a clock signal. It reads and writes in sync with the clock, making it faster and suitable for high-speed applications. Asynchronous − Its working is not dependent on the clock signal; it carries out read-and-write operations once the addresses and control signals are stable. Pseudo SRAM − PSRAM is a type of memory that has features of both DRAM and SRAM. The device uses a DRAM cell but includes an internal refresh circuit, so presenting itself as SRAM to the external system. Non-Volatile SRAM − nvSRAM integrates a small non-volatile memory with SRAM cells to keep data even when power is off. Advantages of SRAM The advantages of SRAM are as follows − SRAM is preferred because it is much faster. It does not require being refreshed. It delivers faster read and write operations. It works as a cache memory in CPUs. It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process. It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory. Disadvantages of SRAM Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows − It is expensive. It has a complex cell structure; so the design and layout of SRAM are more complex. Due to its volatile nature, overall data is lost when power goes off. It has a low storage capacity as compared to DRAM. The design is complex and not easy to build or understand. It is not Suitable for Large Memory Applications Overall, speed and reliability make SRAM highly-priced, particularly for applications such as CPU caches. However, its higher cost and lower density compared to DRAM restrict its use to smaller, high-performance memory applications. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) It is another type of RAM used as main memory; it stores data in capacitors for a short period (a few milliseconds) even when the computer is powered on. Each memory cell is a DRAM chip that contains one bit of

Computer – Memory ”; Previous Next What is computer memory? A physical device that stores data or information temporarily or permanently in it is called memory. It’s a device where data is stored and processed. In common, a computer has primary and secondary memories. Auxiliary (secondary) memory stores data and programs for long-term storage or until the time a user wants to keep them in memory, while main memory stores instructions and data during programme execution; hence, any programme or file that is currently running or executing on a computer is stored in primary memory. Memory Classification Computer memory comes in various types and serves different purposes − Primary Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory) − Volatile memory loses its contents when the machine is turned off. RAM stores the data that is actively being used. During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction access. Secondary Memory (Storage) − Secondary Memory is also known as permanent memory or non-volatile memory of a computer. Secondary memory retains data when the machine shuts down. Files, programmes, and the OS are stored there permanently. HDDs, SSDs, USB flash drives, and optical discs are non-volatile memory devices. Cache Memory − Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache memory. It is placed closer to the CPU than the RAM. It saves data and instructions that are used a lot so that processing goes faster. Different types of cache memory, like L1, L2, and L3 cache, have different speeds and amounts of space. The Levels of Cache Memory: L1, L2, and L3 CPU Cache memory is divided into three “levels”: L1, L2, and L3. The memory hierarchy is again according to the speed and, thus, the cache size. L1 Cache Level 1 cache is a computer”s fastest memory. The CPU”s most frequently accessed data resides in the L1 cache. CPU determines L1 cache size. Some high-end consumer CPUs, such as the Intel i9-9980XE, have a 1MB L1 cache, but they are expensive and rare. Server chipsets like Intel”s Xeon have 1-2MB L1 memory cache. Before buying, examine the CPU specs to ascertain the L1 cache size. There is no “standard” amount. Source: [1] The L1 cache normally has two sections: the instruction cache, which stores CPU operation information, and the data cache, which stores operation data. L2 Cache Level 2 cache is larger but slower than L1. Modern L2 memory caches are gigabytes, not kilobytes. AMD”s top-rated Ryzen 5 5600X has 384KB L1 and 3MB L2 caches and 32MB L3 cache. The L2 cache size depends on the CPU but is usually 256KB to 32MB. Nowadays, most CPUs have more than 256KB L2 cache, which is small. Some of the most powerful current CPUs have L2 memory caches exceeding 8MB. In terms of speed, the L2 cache is slower than the L1 cache but still faster than the system RAM. L2 caches are 25 times faster than RAM, while L1 caches are 100 times faster. L3 Cache Level 3 cache. The L3 memory cache was originally on the motherboard. This was long ago when most CPUs were single-core. The L3 cache on top-end consumer CPUs can reach 32MB, while AMD”s groundbreaking Ryzen 7 5800X3D CPUs have 96MB. CPU L3 caches in some servers can reach 128MB. The largest and slowest cache memory unit is L3. Modern CPUs have an on-chip L3 cache. The chip”s L1 and L2 caches serve each core, while the L3 cache is more like a memory pool for the whole chip. The following images illustrate the CPU memory cache levels for a 2012 Intel Core i5-3570K CPU and a 2020 AMD Ryzen 5800X CPU. The second image”s bottom right corner contains CPU cache data. Source: [1] Note how both CPUs have a split L1 cache and larger L2 and L3 caches. On the AMD Ryzen 5800X, the L3 cache is over five times greater than the Intel i5-3570K. How cache memory works: Hierarchy − Computers normally have L1, L2, and L3 caches are the several layers of cache memory. The L1 cache is the smallest and fastest cache, located closest to the CPU; L2 and L3 caches are larger and slower. Cache Organization − Each block or line of cache memory contains a small bit of data copied from the main memory. The CPU accesses cache memory in fixed-size blocks, not bytes. Cache Coherency − Cache coherency ensures cached data matches the main memory data. Cache coherence techniques update other cores” caches when one core writes to a memory location in a multi-core processor. Cache Replacement Policies − A cache replacement policy decides which block to evict when the cache is full and a new block is needed. LRU, FIFO, and Random Replacement are common policies. Cache Access − The CPU checks the cache before reading or writing data. When data is cached, the CPU can quickly retrieve it. If data is not in the cache (cache miss), the CPU must fetch it from the main memory, which may delay it. Cache Hierarchy − Modern processors contain L1, L2, and L3 caches that grow in capacity and latency farther from the CPU cores. Parallel access is achieved by splitting the L1 cache into instruction and data caches. Cache Management − Optimization of cache utilization maximizes hit rates and minimizes miss penalties. Prefetching, where the processor predicts memory accesses and loads data into the cache, improves cache performance. Cache memory buffers frequently access data between the CPU and main memory to speed up processing and increase system performance. Modern computer systems require effective management and structure for optimal performance. Register Memory Register memory, which is also called processor registers or “registers,” is the smallest and fastest type of computer memory that is directly integrated into the CPU. Registers are small, fast storage units inside the CPU that

Computer – Output Devices ”; Previous Next An output device is a hardware device that is used to show the processed results to the user in the form of text, audio, video, visuals on a computer screen or a printed hard copy on paper. The output devices are mainly categorised as audio output devices, visual output devices, audio-video output devices, and print-based output devices. Different output devices can be connected to computer systems to retrieve the output, based on the type of output and requirements. Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer. Monitors Graphic Plotter Printer Speakers Headphones Projector GPS Monitors Monitors also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is an output device of a computer. It is the most popular output device which looks like a TV screen and shows the output in the form of text, audio, video and images. Overall, it produces output with visual effects to connect the user with the system. Images data form tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes – a fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. Components of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor The key components of a CRT Monitor are as follows − Electron Guns − Produces beams of electrons to display images Phosphorescent Screen − Once electrons hit on phosphor-coated screen, it glows and makes visibility Circuit Board − Provides connectivity for external circuitry Deflection Yoke − It deflects the electron beam in precise patterns Advantages Produces output with visual effects. It has good resolutions which ensure proper visibility of image-related outputs. No motion blur due to instant response time. It can display multiple resolutions without scaling artefacts. It has high refresh rates which reduces flicker and eye strain. Disadvantages Large in Size Carries high weight A lot of power consumption Produces heat Flat-Panel Display Monitor The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirements in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and graphics displays. The flat-panel display is divided into two categories − Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panels and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes). Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). Components of Flat-Panel Display Monitor The key components of a Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows − Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) − It is positioned between two layers of glass or plastic and modulates light to create images. Light Emitting Diode (LED) − it emits light and improves colour and contrast. Plasma Display Panel (PDP) − It contains small cells with phosphor coated to emit light. Quantum Dot Display − It contains quantum dots to enhance colour accuracy. Advantages Some of the key advantages of Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows − Smaller in size makes it easy to mount and transport. It consumes less power. It has higher resolutions which makes good picture quality. It makes users comfortable to get connected for a longer period and reduces eye strain. Available in different sizes. Disadvantages Expensive as compared to CRT monitors. Its resolution is not up to mark as compared to CRT. It is a soft covering which may damage and be difficult to clean. Graphic Plotter A plotter, which is a type of printer, receives instructions from a computer to produce line drawings on paper using one or more automated pens. In contrast to a standard printer, a plotter can create uninterrupted point-to-point lines directly from vector graphic files or commands. Computer graphics and engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-quality, accurate, and detailed drawings or plots on paper or other media. It draws continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a standard printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as − Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and shapes precisely using continuous points instead of dots like raster printers. Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument is drawn on paper for graphic plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw complicated shapes. Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture, cartography, and textile design. They were popular for technical drawings and diagrams before digital. A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still used in sectors and applications that need accuracy and high-quality output, even if digital printing has made them less widespread. Components of Graphic Plotters The key components of a Graphic Plotter are as follows − Plotter Head − A plotter head contains multiple pens of different colours to draw images. Plotting Surface − It is used to hold and feed paper. Microcontroller − Controls the plotting process and interprets commands. Interfaces − It provides interfaces to connect USB, Ethernet, or wireless connections. Memory − A device used to Store plotting instructions to process temporarily. Types of plotters Pen Plotters − It uses vector graphics and line drawings. Drum plotters − A drum plotter is a device that uses a rotating drum

Computer – CompactFlash Card ”; Previous Next What is a CompactFlash Card? A CompactFlash card is a memory card used to store data. It is also known as CF card which was developed by SanDisk in the year 1994. A CompactFlash card is a type of flash memory that stores the data on a tiny chip. This card does not have moving mechanical parts; so, it does not require a battery to retain data. A CompactFlash card is one of the most widely used portable storage devices which is smaller in size and a more reliable storage device. It is most widely used in computing devices to provide faster and reliable data storage. It is a type of flash memory used as a removable storage for digital images and video cameras, but it can also be found on personal devices such as PDAs and portable music players. A CompactFlash card was initially offered with storage capacities ranging from megabytes to several gigabytes. Modern CF cards can offer storage capacities of up to 512GB or more. The earliest CompactFlash cards were designed using NOR flash memory that can read and write data in random order. This feature made it ideal and popular to store images or text-type data. NOR flash memory was slower and more expensive; later on, flash memory used NAND flash memory and became more popular and less expensive. NAND flash memory is speedier and can be written in serial order, making it ideal for storing large files like video or music. Significances of CompactFlash Card CompactFlash cards are available with different storage capacities which enable it for substantial storing of high-resolution photos, films, and other significant files. This is especially useful for photographers and videographers who need to save a lot of data. These cards are available with different storage capacities ranging from 8GB to 512 GB. A CompactFlash card”s capacity is defined by the number of NAND flash chips used for data storage. CompactFlash cards are more reliable in harsh environments. Nowadays, CompactFlash cards are used in industrial applications and professional use in the field. CompactFlash cards are widely used and still compatible with many high-end cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment. Their extensive history in the industry provides continuing maintenance and compatibility with legacy equipment. CompactFlash cards offer consistent and stable performance, which is crucial for applications requiring uninterrupted data storage and retrieval. CompactFlash cards are intended to protect data integrity, lowering the chance of loss or corruption. This is vital for professionals who need to protect their work, as well as for industrial applications that require data integrity. Despite the development of newer memory cards like SD cards and microSD cards, CompactFlash cards remain useful in situations where their longevity, high capacity, and consistent performance, are necessary. How does CompactFlash Card work? CompactFlash cards work by plugging them into pinholes for the card to function correctly. CF cards are easy to use. They use FAT32 or exFAT formatting and are compatible. CompactFlash cards employ NAND flash memory. Data is stored in memory cells that are grouped into blocks. Each cell contains a set number of bits, usually one bit for single-level cells (SLC) and more for multi-level cells (MLC). Traditional CF cards use the Parallel ATA (PATA) interface for transferring data between the card and the host device while advanced CompactFlash cards may employ the CFexpress standard, which uses the PCIe interface for higher data transfer rates. Each CF card comprises a controller for data storage and retrieval. The controller is in charge of functions such as wear levelling and error correction. When data is written to the card, the controller assigns it to the proper memory cells. During a read operation, the controller receives data from the cells and transfers it to the host device. CF cards require a power supply to function. When plugged into a device, the device supplies the electricity required for the card to work. Types of CompactFlash Cards CompactFlash (CF) cards are come in different types; these are as follows − CompactFlash (CF) cards Type Description CF Type I It’s a standard CompactFlash card measuring 3.3mm in thickness. It is most widely used in digital cameras, camcorders, and other related devices. CF Type II These are thicker at 5mm; their storage capacity is comparatively more. Cfast These cards use a Serial ATA (SATA) interface to work on faster data transfer principles. It has a 3.3mm thickness. It is used in cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment. Cfexpress These cards use the PCIe and NVMe interfaces which have higher data transfer rates. Its thickness may vary in size. These cards are more likely used in video recording and burst photography. UDMA (Ultra Direct Memory Access) CF Cards These CompactFlash cards use UDMA protocol and have higher data transfer rates. It has a 3.3mm thickness. These are most widely used in professional photography and video applications. Industrial CF Cards These CF cards are designed to survive high temperatures, vibrations, and shocks. Its thickness may vary in size. These are most widely used in industrial PCs and automation systems. Features of CompactFlash Card Some of the key characteristics of CompactFlash Card are as follows − Higher Performance − CompactFlash cards are much faster than other memory cards, such as SD cards. Capacity − CompactFlash cards are available with different storage capacities ranging from 8GB to 512GB. This makes them perfect for storing huge files like high-resolution photos or films. Durability − CompactFlash cards are robust and durable. They include no moving parts and are housed in a solid plastic housing. Reliability − CompactFlash cards are extremely reliable and have a low failure rate.

Types of Computers ”; Previous Next The types of computer are as follows − Analogue computer Digital computer Digital computers are further categorised as follows − Micro computer Mini computer Mainframe computer Super computer Hybrid computer Analogue computer An analog or analogue computer is a computer which processes analogue data. It processes and represents data using continuous signals such as voltage, current, or physical dimensions. The analogue computers were used during 1950s–1960s. Analogue data is not discrete; it is continuous. Pressure, temperature, voltage, speed, and weight are examples of such data. Analogue computers are most widely used in aircraft, ships, submarines, and daily appliances like refrigerator, speedometer, etc. Types of Analogue Computers Different types of analogue computers are as − Mechanical Analogue Computers − These computers were using physical mechanisms like gears, levers, and rotating disks to model and solve mathematical equations. Example – analyser. Electrical Analogue Computers − These computers were used electrical circuits to represent and solve mathematical equations. Example – Spectrometer, oscilloscope. Optical Analogue Computers − These computers were used light and optics for computation. Example – Norden bombsight. Analogue-Digital Hybrid Computers − These computers were the combination of analogue and digital computers so that they can process both continuous and discrete data to make them versatile for various applications like Petrol pumps, which contain a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into quantity and price.Example – Hycomp 250. Now a day, analogue computers have replaced by digital computers. However, analogue computers are still in use where continuous data processing or simulation of physical systems is required. Digital Computer The digital computers are the type of computers that uses discrete data to perform computations. The most common type of computers used today is digital computers. Personal computers, smartphones, servers and supercomputers are some of the examples of digital computers. Digital computers are further categorised as follows − Microcomputer − it is a type of computer which is smaller in size and less powerful than mainframe and minicomputer systems. Microcomputers are used in personal computing, office tasks, and small-scale computing applications. Minicomputer − minicomputer is a computer that falls between mainframe computers and microcomputers. It is smaller than mainframe computers but larger than microcomputers. These computers are used for personal use for computing, and data management. Mainframe Computer − Mainframe computers are powerful than minicomputer. These computers are used in E-business, banking, stock exchange, railway and airlines ticketing, and research centers. Super computer − A supercomputer is a highly powerful computer. These computers are specially designed to solve complex computational problems. A supercomputer may use for space investigation, Atomic weapons, Genetic engineering, Military, Weather forecasting, simulations, data analysis. Hybrid Computer The hybrid computer is a type of computer that combines the functionalities of both digital and analogue computers. The primary aim of hybrid computer’s design is to do highly intricate computations. A hybrid computer has the capability to address the computational needs of large-scale organisations by effectively solving logical and technical computations, and also provides efficient processing of differential equations. Followings are the key features of hybrid computers − Analogue and Digital Components − Hybrid computers integrate the functionalities of both digital and analogue computers. This allows to process continuous signals from the physical world and performs digital computations. Fast Data Conversion − Hybrid computers can convert analogue data into digital format efficiently. This process enables to process real-world data and make fruitful decisions based on processed outcomes. High-Speed Processing − Hybrid computers are highly computational devices which do numerical calculations, making them suitable for tasks requiring complex mathematical operations and simulations. Real-time Analysis − The hybrid computers excel in real-time analysis of continuous data. Complex Simulations − Hybrid computers are used in scientific research and engineering simulations that necessitate the combination of mathematical modelling with integration of real-world data. Accuracy and Precision − The hybrid computer gives accuracy and precision in calculations, ensuring reliable results for different applications. Customization − Adjusting the proportion of analogue to digital components in hybrid computers allows them to be specialised for use in a variety of different applications. Control Systems − Control systems in industries such as manufacturing, aerospace, and automotive, which require real-time data processing and precise control, frequently make use of hybrid computers because to their versatility and low power consumption. Scientific Research − They are useful tools in scientific study, particularly in subjects like as physics, chemistry, and biology, where simulations using both continuous and discrete data are required. This is especially true of the domains of physics, chemistry, and biology. Medical Imaging − In medical imaging procedures, such as the processing of data from devices like MRI and CT scanners, which involve both continuous and discrete data, hybrid computers play an important role. One example of this is the processing of MRI and CT scan data. Weather Prediction − For the purpose of modelling the weather, hybrid computers are used in the field of meteorology. This is due to the fact that weather patterns require both on-going physical processes and intricate numerical models. Complex Calculations − Hybrid computers can be useful in different kinds of work, including simulations of nuclear reactors and studies of fluid dynamics, which both combine real-time analysis and numerical computations. Optimization Problems − Hybrid computers are used for solving optimization problems that require both continuous adjustments and discrete decisions. Energy Efficiency − Hybrid computers may be more energy-efficient than digital computers because they can outsource some computations to analogue components, which may be more power-efficient for specific duties. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Overview ”; Previous Next Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format. The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals. Functionalities of a Computer If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions − Step 1 − Takes data as input. Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required. Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information. Step 4 − Generates the output. Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps. Advantages of Computers Following are certain advantages of computers. High Speed Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data. The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond. It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months to perform the same task. Accuracy In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The calculations are 100% error free. Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct. Storage Capability Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings. It can store large amount of data. It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc. Diligence Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can work continuously without any error and boredom. It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy. Versatility A computer is a very versatile machine. A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done. This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields. At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game. Reliability A computer is a reliable machine. Modern electronic components have long lives. Computers are designed to make maintenance easy. Automation Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process. As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced. Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction. Disadvantages of Computers Following are certain disadvantages of computers. No I.Q. A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task. Each instruction has to be given to the computer. A computer cannot take any decision on its own. Dependency It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans. Environment The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable. No Feeling Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Origin of Computing ”; Previous Next Origins of computing refer to the historical origins and evolution of computing and include the development of various technologies, theories, and concepts that have laid the foundation for modern computing systems. The journey to the origins of computing is a complex and fascinating story that spans centuries and includes contributions from various fields such as mathematics, engineering, and philosophy. Below are just a few highlights from the extensive timeline of the origins of computing − Ancient computing devices − the earliest forms of computing can be traced back to ancient civilizations. The abacus, for example, was used for arithmetic calculations in cultures such as the Sumerians and the Chinese. Mathematical Logic and Algorithms − The work of mathematicians such as Euclid, Pythagoras, and Archimedes laid the foundation for the mathematical principles underlying computational algorithms. Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace − In the 19th century, Charles Babbage (also known as father of computer) developed the idea of mechanical computing devices known as the “Analytical Engine” Ada Lovelace; a Mathematician has writing the first computer program for Babbage”s machine. Alan Turing and the Turing Machine − Alan Turing, a British mathematician, introduced the concept of the Turing machine, a theoretical model of computation that forms the basis for modern computers. Electronic Computers − The development of electronic computers began in the mid of 20th century. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was built during 1940s, considered as first general-purpose electronic computers. Transistors and integrated circuits − The invention of the transistor in the late 1940s revolutionized computing by enabling the development of smaller, faster, and more powerful devices. Personal computers and graphical user interfaces − The rise of the personal computers has shown during 1970’s and 1980’s. During this phase; Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak founded Apple and introduced graphical user interfaces with the Macintosh computer. Internet and networks − The ARPANET project in the late 1960s laid the foundation for the modern Internet. The development of network protocols and the World Wide Web (WWW) in the 1990’s changed the way information accessing and shared it around the world. Open source software development − The open source software gained the popularity and it’s usage during 1980- 1990s. A popular example of open source software is Linux operating system which was developed by Linus Torvalds. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning − The domain artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) have their roots during 20th century. Over time, advances in algorithms and computing power have led to significant breakthroughs in AI applications. Here, below mentioned table summarizes the origins of computing as per the time line when humans first started using tools to aid in calculation and data processing. Table : The origins of computing Time Computing devices invented and used Description 16th – 17th centuries Mechanical Calculators The first mechanical calculating machines, such as Blaise Pascal”s Pascaline and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz”s step calculator were designed to perform basic arithmetic calculations. 1837-1871 Analytical Engine Designed by Charles Babbage, the Analytical Engine is often considered the theoretical precursor to modern computers. It featured concepts like an arithmetic logic unit, memory, and a control unit. Late 19th – Early 20th centuries Tabulating Machines Herman Hollerith was the inventor of tabulating devices that used punched cards for data processing and storage. These devices were employed for the processing of census data and can be seen as a predecessor to contemporary data processing methods. 1930s – 1940s Vacuum Tube Computers The first electronic digital computers used vacuum tubes for logic and memory. 1945 ENIAC ENIAC was one of the first general-purpose digital computers. 1940s – 1950s Stored-Program Computers The development of stored-program computers marked a significant milestone. 1950s – 1960s Transistors and Integrated Circuits Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, more reliable, and energy-efficient. 1970s – 1980s Microprocessors and Personal Computers Microprocessor, like the Intel 4004, led to the development of affordable and compact computers. 1980s – 1990s Graphical User Interfaces and Networking GUI based computing applications were Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows. These were made computers more user-friendly. 2000s – Present Mobile and Cloud Computing The 21st century brought mobile computing as well as cloud computing services, which allow users to access and store data remotely. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Generations ”; Previous Next The development of computers has gone through different generations, each generation marked by significant advancements in terms of technology and architecture. These generations are classified as follows: First generation Second generation Third generation Fourth generation Fifth generation First Generation The timeline for the first generation computers was 1940 to 1956. The first generation computers were developed using vacuum tube or thermionic valve machine. Punched cards and paper tape were used as input/output. Magnetic drums and magnetic tapes were used as a memory device to save the data. These computers were consuming lot of electricity because of vacuum tubes and other electronic devices and generate lot of heat. These were bigger in size and more expensive. These computers were worked on binary-coded concept (i.e., language of 0-1). Examples − ENIAC, EDVAC, etc. Read more about First Generation Second Generation The timeline for the second generation computers was 1956 to 1963. Transistors were used to develop. In comparison to the first generation, second generation computers were small in size. Punched cards and magnetic tape were used for input /output. Electricity consumption was low and produces less heat. Magnetic core memory was used. Fast computing and were used in business, scientific research, and government applications. Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 1401, IBM 7090. Read more about Second Generation Third Generation The timeline for the third generation computers was 1963 to 1971. Integrated Circuit (IC) was used to develop. In comparison to the second generation, third generation computers were small in size. Magnetic tape, keyboard, monitor, printer devices were used as input and output. Computation power was higher as compare to second generation computers. The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less heat. The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low as these were consuming less power and generated less heat. These were most widely used in commercial purposes. Examples − UNIVAC, IBM 360, IBM 370. Read more about Third Generation Fourth Generation The timeline for the fourth generation computers was 1972 to 2010. Microprocessor technology was used to develop. These were surprising in terms of size and computing power. Portable computers. Very less power consuming and affordable. Semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM were used which makes computation faster. Keyboard, pointing devices, optical scanning, monitor, printer devices were used for input and output. It became available for the common people as well. Examples − IBM PC, STAR 1000, Apple. Read more about Fourth Generation Fifth Generation The timeline for the fifth generation computers is form 2010 to till date. These computers are based on artificial intelligence, Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI), Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel processing technology. Very fast and multiple tasks could be performed simultaneously. These are smaller in size as compare to fourth generation computers. Consumes very low power. Keyboard, monitor, mouse, touchscreen, scanner, printer are used as an input output devices. Examples − Laptops, tablets, smartphones are most popular examples of fifth generation computers. Read more about Fifth Generation Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Advantages and Disadvantages ”; Previous Next A computer is an electronic device. It performs computation on inputted data by processing it. It is a cutting-edge device that can store large amounts of data, process it, and give desired results. Its results are accurate if the inputted data is correct, which makes it more popular at this time. In today’s time, computers are almost used in every domain, like education, research, medicine, law, retail, companies, etc. Due to the popularity and usage of computers, there is no shelter in saying that today everyone has become dependent on them. There are some advantages and disadvantages to computers. Advantages of Computers Speed − Computers can execute programmes quickly. Thousands of instructions can execute in milliseconds or seconds. Accuracy − Computers can perform very complex computations accurately in a very short period of time. If a user inputs the correct input to the computer, it gives accurate results that can be used in decision-making. Storage − Computers can store large amounts of data permanently. The data is saved in files, which can be accessed at any time; these files are saved for a long time period until a user deletes them. Power of Remembering − A computer stores data permanently. It forgets or loses certain information only when asked to do so. Versatility − A computer is a versatile device. It can run different programmes simultaneously. Diligently − A computer can do the assigned task diligently. A computer can work for hours without getting tired. Hence, it can do thousands of complex computations with the same accuracy. Automation − A computer is an automated device. It works without human intervention. No I.Q. − A computer does not have its own I.Q.; it carries out the predetermined tasks and does not take its own decisions. No Feelings − A computer does not have emotions. It works as per the given instructions by users. Disadvantages of Computers Health Issues − Working long hours on computers leads to health issues. Student”s playing games and accessing related applications for long periods of time cause serious health problems. Spread of Pornography − The growing trend of the internet has spread pornography. In today”s time, pornography is a big threat to society and the youth. Virus and hacking attacks − Viruses are unwanted programmes that enter computers through networks or the internet. These programmes may steal information or damage computers. Sometimes these lock the application programmes of the computer to affect its working. No IQ − Computers cannot make their own decisions. Its functioning depends on human interventions. Negative effect on the environment − The increasing use of computers and automated devices has posed a major threat to the environment. Crashed Networks − Hackers may destroy the network, which affects the overall working of the existing system. In today’s time, most of the data is on servers, so destroying the network may be a serious threat to communication. Online cybercrimes − the practise of using a computer to facilitate unlawful activities including fraud, the trafficking of child pornography and other items of intellectual property, identity theft, and privacy violations The relevance of cybercrime, particularly over the Internet, has increased as the computer is most widely used in business, entertainment, and government. Data and information violation − A breach of confidentiality occurs when information is given to a third party without the data owner”s authorization. The owner of the data has the right to file for legal action to recover the potential losses. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;