Category: computer Fundamentals

Computer Fundamentals – Word Processors ”; Previous Next What is word processor? Word processors are software tools that allow you to create, edit, format, and print documents. They provide features to users to manipulating text and inserting pictures, tables, and other objects into their documents. Word processors frequently have certain capabilities like spell checking, grammar checking, and thesaurus services to help users to enhance the quality of their work. Generally, Word processors are software applications used to create, edit, format, and print text-based documents. They are commonly used for composing essays, reports, letters, and resumes. Microsoft Word, Google Docs, Apple Pages, and LibreOffice Writer are some of the most popular word processing applications. These programmes are commonly used in a different way, including offices, schools, and individuals task to write reports, letters, essays, and other documents. The majority of basic operations remain same and don”t require advanced computer or typing abilities to operate. But a full-featured word processor is one that enables us to work with text in addition to additional components, including images, tables, and creative writings, to create interesting and informative pages. Fig: Sample image of word processor; includes text and an image Parts of a Microsoft word window Title bar − It includes title of the document. Menu Bar − It contains different menus used as command to do the task. Status bar − It is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that shows the running tasks. Editing − It allows users to make certain changes required in a document. We may create our own bulletin board posters, type letters and attach them to emails as documents, and so on. We have chosen Microsoft Word as an example word processing tool since it is an essential application of Microsoft Office. It is most widely used application amongst users because of its simplicity, easiness and document features. Word processors have progressed significantly over the years, offering increasingly advanced features and integration with other software and services. Popular Word Processor There are different word processors available; some of the most popular include − 1. Microsoft Word Microsoft Word is a word processing application developed by Microsoft Corporation; it is most frequently used in all over the world. It allows its users to create documents, modification, formatting, collaboration, and publishing of those documents. 2. Google Docs Google Docs is a cloud-based word processor offered by Google as part of the Google Drive package. It enables users to create, modify, and collaborate on documents online in real time. Google Docs is well-known for its user-friendly collaboration features, which allow multiple people to work together on the same document at once. 3. Apple Pages Pages is a word processor designed by Apple Inc. It is part of the iWork productivity suite and is compatible with macOS, iOS, and iPadOS devices. Pages provides a range of templates, formatting options, and collaborative tools to create documents. 4. LibreOffice Writer LibreOffice Writer is a free and open-source word processing software that is included in LibreOffice suite. It has similar features to other popular word processors and supports a variety of file formats, including Microsoft Word”s.docx format. 5. WPS Office Writer The WPS Office suite, developed by Kingsoft Office, includes WPS Office Writer as one of its components. In addition to being compatible with the formats developed by Microsoft Word, it provides different tools for the creation, editing, and formatting of documents. Word processors often provide different functions, including spell checking, grammar checking, formatting tools (such as fonts, styles, and headings), tables, graphics, and the ability to check for spelling errors. Documents may be exported to different file formats, including PDF, and many of them also feature connectivity with cloud storage services, which makes it simple to view and share documents. Features of word processor Applications that can be used to create, edit, format, and print documents are known as word processors. To make working with documents easier, they provide different key functions. Common features of word processors are as − Fig: Common features of word processors Text Editing − Word processors enable users to input, modify, and remove text within documents. Typically, they provide features such as cut, copy, paste, undo, and redo. Formatting Tools − Users have the ability to modify the appearance of text by using different fonts, font sizes, styles (such as bold, italic, and underline), colors, alignment options (such as left, right, center, and justified), indentation, and spacing. Spell Check and Grammar Check − Word processing software often has integrated spell checkers and grammar checkers that can promptly detect and rectify spelling and grammar mistakes. Autocorrect − Autocorrect functions automatically rectify common spelling errors as users do these mistakes during typing text, hence, it enhances accuracy and effectiveness of document creation. Find and Replace − Users have the ability to search for particular words or phrases within a document and substitute them with different text. This functionality is advantageous for making global changes or corrections. Templates − Word processors offer pre-designed document templates for different purposes such as resumes, letters, reports, and flyers. These templates allow users to begin with a structured layout. Headers and Footers − Users have the ability to include headers and footers in documents. These sections usually include details like page numbers, document titles, dates, and author names. Tables − Word processors allow users to include, modify, and arrange tables within documents; also enable users to systematically arrange data into rows and columns. Graphics and Multimedia Integration − this feature allow users to insert images, shapes, charts, and other multimedia components into documents in order to enhance

Computer Fundamentals – E-mail Tools ”; Previous Next What is email (electronic mail)? E-mail (Electronic mail), is a way of communication between two or more two users over the Internet. An Email facilitates individuals, business professionals and organisations to send messages, invitations, files, and documents to one or more recipients at the same time; it means a copy of a message or attached document in a mail can be sent to multiple users at the same time. To work on email the sender and receiver must have a valid email ID like [email protected] A sender (a person who sends an email) user composes a new email when they plan to send it to one or more recipients (a person who receives an email) by adding them, adding a subject line, and attaching files or documents if required. Once the message is sent, it reaches different servers over the Internet until it reaches a recipient”s email address from where they can access this information via their mail ID. The following image shows the email inbox − In the digital age, email is one of the most commonly used forms of communication and serves a range of purposes from personal correspondence to business communications and marketing. Components of an Email The key components of an Email are as follows − Sender − A person who sends an email to the receiver for example [email protected] is a sender who is sending an email to [email protected] Receiver − A receiver is a person who receives an email sent by the sender via email for example [email protected] is a receiver who is receiving an email sent by [email protected] Email address − An email address is a unique address to identify the person uniquely on the internet. For example, [email protected] is an email address. Once an email address is assigned to a person or group cannot be assigned to another person; it”s like an enrolment number of a student. Mailer − It’s a program which allows users to read, write, and delete emails. Some popular mailer is Gmail, rediffmail, Outlook, etc. Mail Server − The mail server is a central system or controller of the entire email system; it holds the entire log history of sending, receiving, and deleting emails and manages mail programs for their respective users. SMTP − SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. SMTP is a protocol specially designed for email system; this protocol can be considered as a controller program to manage the entire email system; for example, how email will be sent to the receiver, the computer network to send mail, the internet network connection, and receivers email inbox to receive email messages over the Internet. How does email work? Email is a method of communication between more than one user over the internet. The following points simplifies the overview of how it works − Creating an Email − You compose a new email using an email client, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Yahoo Mail. Below mentioned image describes it. Sending the Email − Mention the recipient”s name write the message in the body section and then click on the send button. When you hit the “send” button, your email client communicates with an outgoing mail server (SMTP server). Retrieving or accessing the Email − The recipient login using their valid email ID (such as Gmail or Outlook) and checks their inbox. When they do this, the email is retrieved by their email client connecting to their incoming mail server (POP3 or IMAP server). Viewing the Email − The recipient can then view the email in their inbox read it and take necessary actions such as replying or forwarding. Replying and Forwarding − The process is repeated if the receiver decides to reply or forward the email. They use their email ID to log in, enter the recipient”s email address, and draft their message in reply and send the mail. After that, this email follows the previously outlined process. Storage and Deletion − Emails can be kept on the email servers of the sender and the recipient. Emails can be deleted by users from their inbox, perhaps moving them to a “deleted items” or “trash” folder. These deleted emails might eventually be deleted forever from the email server”s database. Anatomy of an Email / Structure of an Email Emails are complicated and powerful tools. People use emails for different reasons, from sending personal messages, marketing messages, and official correspondence to sharing large files and documents. Email has changed a lot in how it works over the years, but the basic format of an email remains the same. There are usually four main parts to an email − Headers − When you open an email, it”s the first thing that we see. A header includes the sender”s name and address, the recipient”s email address, the subject line as well as the date and time when the message was sent. Subject Line − One of the most important parts of an email is the subject line, which tells the recipient what the email is all about. The subject line should be clear and to the point, giving the recipient an idea of what they”re going to find in that email. Salutation − Salutation shows how senders address their recipients formally or casually. The best email salutation may include Hi (first name), Hello (name), Dear (name), Greetings, and Good morning/afternoon/evening. Body − The primary content of the mail is included in the body section of an email. This is the section where the senders include the actual text of the message, as well as any attachments or links. Signature − The signature is the last section of the email. It usually contains the sender”s name, designation, organisation

Computer Fundamentals – Extranet ”; Previous Next Introduction An extranet is a private computer network that allows controlled access to external users or organizations over the Internet. An extranet is a collaborative, internet-based network that makes it easier for companies to work together by connecting a company with its customers, suppliers, and other outside business partners. The concept of the extranet emerged when organisations wanted to engage in collaboration with external partners, including suppliers, customers, and contractors. Extranets refer to non-public networks that transcend the confines of an organisation, encompassing certain external entities. It serves as an extension of an organization”s intranet. Extranets are safe computer networks for organisations or businesses to share business data and processes internally and with partners outside the company. They use internet-based apps and technology to do it and provide secure access to specific resources and information to authorized users outside of the organization, such as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers. An extranet is a safe and cooperative way for an organisation to connect its network to people outside the organisation. It makes it easy for people outside the organisation to communicate, work together, and share data. How extranet works? An extranet works as a secure extension of an organization”s internal network; it provides controlled access to external users such as clients, partners, suppliers, or other stakeholders. Here”s a breakdown of how an extranet typically functions − Authentication and Access Control − External users access the extranet using usernames, passwords, or two-factor authentication. Access controls restrict users to information and features related to their role or relationship with the company. This is usually done through user roles, permissions, and access. Secure Communication − Internal and external users can securely communicate and collaborate on the extranet. Messaging, chat, forums, and email integration are some common examples of this. Communication channels are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping. Document Management and File Sharing − Users can upload, share, and collaborate on documents and files within the extranet environment. Document management features typically include version control, file organization, access permissions, and audit trails to track changes and maintain data integrity. Project Management − Project management technologies on extranets help internal and external teams collaborate. Users can assign duties, set deadlines, measure progress, and share project documents and information. Data Sharing and Exchange − Users can securely share sensitive files and information with others. Integration with cloud storage services may enable cross-platform data interchange and collaboration. Collaboration and Workflow Automation − Extranets consolidate information, tools, and resources, simplifying collaboration and workflows. Alerts, reminders, and task automation help users stay organized and productive. Reporting and Analytics − Reports and statistics reveal extranet usage, collaboration, and project performance. To increase efficiency and effectiveness, organizations can track KPIs, spot trends, and make data-driven choices. Security and Compliance − To keep sensitive information safe and in line with regulations, stringent security measures are put in place, including firewalls, encryption, and access controls. Extranets may adhere to industry standards and best practices for data security and privacy, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or ISO certifications. Features of Extranet Secure Access − To prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing the platform, the extranet uses strong security measures. This includes multi-factor authentication and encryption protocols to safeguard sensitive information. Document Management − Easy document upload, sharing, and collaboration with authorized users. With our intuitive folder structure and version control system, everyone can access the latest data while retaining organization and security. Communication Tools − Built-in chat, texting, and forums keep you connected. The communication tools simplify collaboration and boost productivity for project tasks and updates. Project Management − Task lists, timetables, and milestone tracking help you manage projects more efficiently. Assign tasks, create deadlines, and track progress to ensure that projects stay on track and goals are fulfilled efficiently. Data Sharing and Exchange − Securely share data with clients and partners. A secure file-sharing technology interacts with various cloud storage services for easy data exchange. Calendar and Events − Keep everyone informed about upcoming events, meetings, and deadlines with shared calendars and event scheduling features. Receive reminders and notifications to stay on top of important dates. Reporting and Analytics − The reporting and analytics tools reveal platform usage, project progress, and collaboration indicators. Track KPIs and make smart decisions to succeed in business. Types of Extranets Extranets come in various types, each tailored to meet specific business needs and requirements. Here are some common types of extranets − Supplier Extranet − An extranet for suppliers facilitates collaboration between organisations and their suppliers, vendors, and distributors. The system enhances the exchange of information about orders, inventory control, delivery timetables, and product requirements. Supplier extranets optimise procurement procedures, enhance supply chain transparency, and fortify supplier relationships. Customer Extranet − A customer extranet provides a platform for organizations to interact with their customers and clients. It may encompass different functionalities, such as placing orders online, managing accounts, providing customer service, and accessing product information or technical documentation. Customer extranets have been found to have a positive impact on customer satisfaction, as they incorporate self-service features and promote consumer involvement and loyalty. Partner Extranet − A partner extranet facilitates the ability of business partners, including joint venture partners, resellers, and co-marketing partners, to engage in collaborative efforts and exchange of information. It enhances the ability to engage in collaborative efforts, exchange sales and marketing materials, and synchronise cooperative endeavours. The use of partner extranets serves to enhance collaborations, facilitate effective communication, and foster collaborative decision-making processes. Collaboration Extranet − The collaboration extranet functions as a platform that facilitates the sharing of ideas and resources between internal and external stakeholders, enabling them to engage in collaborative efforts. The system may encompass several functionalities such as document sharing, project management tools, a forum for

Computer – Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) ”; Previous Next What is Graphics Processing Unit (GPU?) Graphics processing is an advanced technology that has evolved specifically for computing. The graphics processing unit (GPU) is an advanced and specialised processor which makes computing possibilities for machine learning, deep learning, gaming, content creation, and many more related technologies. A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialised electrical circuit that accelerates computer graphics and image processing. GPUs are useful for non-graphic computations such as neural networks and cryptocurrency. GPUs were originally developed to speed up the rendering of 3D visuals. They gradually became more adaptable and programmable and expanded their capabilities. This enabled graphics programmers to generate more fascinating visual effects and realistic scenes using advanced lighting and shadowing methods. In other applications, GPUs are most widely used to significantly work with high-performance computing (HPC), deep learning, and other domains. Significances of GPUs GPUs are mostly used to speed up real-time 3D graphics applications like gaming. However, as the twenty-first century began, computer experts recognised that GPUs could address some of the world”s most complex computing problems. This realisation ushered in the era of general-purpose GPUs. Graphics technology is now being used to solve a broader range of challenges. Today”s GPUs are more programmable than ever before, allowing them to power a wide range of applications beyond standard graphics rendering. GPUs are significant for the following reasons − GPUs for Gaming Video games have become more computationally intensive, with hyperrealistic graphics and vast, complicated in-game worlds. With advanced display technologies, such as 4K screens and high refresh rates, along with the rise of virtual reality gaming, demands on graphics processing are growing fast. GPUs are capable of rendering graphics in both 2D and 3D. With better graphics performance, games can be played at higher resolution, at faster frame rates, or both. GPUs for Video Editing and Content Creation GPUs provide a computational solution for parallel processing, with built-in AI features and sophisticated acceleration for faster execution and easier rendering of video and graphics in higher-defined formats. GPU for Machine Learning Artificial intelligence and machine learning are among the most interesting applications for GPU technology. Because GPUs have an enormous amount of computational power, they can provide remarkable acceleration in workloads that make use of GPUs” highly parallel nature, such as image recognition. Many of today”s deep learning solutions rely on GPUs to work alongside CPUs. How do GPUs work? A GPU is ideally suited for tasks or programs that require large volumes of data and repetitive computation. GPUs have a similar fetch-decode-execute cycle, it has designed in such a way that they can handle thousands of threads at once, making them well-suited for parallel processing tasks − Fetching − The GPU fetches instructions for the execution from its internal memory. (VRAM). Decoding − The control units of streaming multiprocessors (SMs) decode instructions. Each SM can process multiple instructions at once and assign them to available cores. Executing − The decoded instructions are executed by multiple small cores in the SM. These cores perform operations like matrix multiplication and vector operations for graphics rendering and machine learning. Writing back − The findings are either returned to GPU memory or transmitted to the display output. Overall, GPU working includes − Parallel Processing − GPUs, unlike CPUs, have thousands of small cores which are integrated with the system to do parallel processing. This makes it extremely efficient for larger and more complex tasks that can be divided into smaller ones and apply parallel processing to them. CUDA cores (NVIDIA) or stream processors (AMD) − These are the basic processing units of a GPU, which can execute the processes on their own. Modern GPUs exist with thousands of these cores. Memory − A GPU has its memory which is known as Graphics Memory or VRAM (Video RAM). A VRAM is capable enough to do multiple tasks at once. This allows them to rapidly process and render images. Shader − Shaders are specialised processing units within a GPU. They are specifically designed to perform vertex shading, geometry shading, pixel shading, and computation. These units support rendering graphics and computations. APIs − To optimise GPUs, software applications use programming interfaces such as CUDA or OpenCL to manage and perform parallel activities. These APIs give support to developers with tools, frameworks and libraries to help them design programmes that make the best use of GPU capabilities. Data and task parallelism − GPUs are capable enough to perform data parallelism and task parallelism on different sets of data simultaneously. SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) − This paradigm enables GPUs to perform the same action on multiple data points at once making them useful for image processing and scientific computations. Task distribution − Workloads for graphics rendering or scientific simulations are divided into different smaller jobs; each of them is assigned to a separate thread that the GPU then runs concurrently. This strategy considerably reduces total processing time. Thread execution − Threads are smaller units of work that allow concurrent processing; this process shows how GPUs function. A GPU can support thousands of threads at a time. Characteristics of GPU Some of the key characteristics of GPU are as follows − Parallel processing − GPUs contain thousands of specialized to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. GPUs include SIMD, this feature allows the GPU to apply the same operation on multiple data points in parallel. Memory − GPUs have their memory. GPUs Video RAM enables rapid access to data and faster data transfer. High Throughput − The parallel processing feature of GPUs provides high throughput. Shaders − Shaders allow for transformations and lighting, texturing, shading and computational tasks beyond graphics rendering Scalability − GPUs can scale

Computer – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ”; Previous Next What is ALU? ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit. An ALU is a key component of the CPU which performs arithmetic and logical operations. It can perform billions of operations per second. An ALU circuit has the integration of four key components inputs, operands, outputs, and storage. To store binary digits, computers use transistor switches that are either open or closed. Data is also stored in a register designated to store output. ALUs tend to be fast and accurate. These conduct logical operations such as bitwise operations, which are operations on a string of binary numbers. The CPU processor directly supports bitwise logical operations, which are fast, simple, and range from basic to higher-level. ALUs conduct bit shifting, which is the movement of bits in response to particular instructions from bit operators. ALUs may also do multiple-precision arithmetic, which is a software operation required when the desired level of accuracy exceeds the hardware”s capacity. ALUs can do complex arithmetic and logical operations because they enable modern computers to split difficult calculations into a large number of binary processes. What does the ALU do? ALUs carry out arithmetic and logical operations. Also found in the CPU are Control Units, or CUs. The CU directs the ALU in performing specific operations, with the ALU being responsible for carrying out these operations. The NOT Gate consists of a single transistor and one input logic gate. Its function is to produce outputs that are the inverse of the input. For instance, an input of 1 would result in an output of 0. Multiple transistors and two inputs are used in the OR Gate. The output is only 1 if the first or second input is 1. Conversely, the OR gate produces an output of 0 when both inputs are 0. The AND Gate utilizes multiple transistors and two inputs. The output is 1 only if both the first and second inputs are 1. Functions of ALU The ALU is an essential component of the CPU. It majorly performs arithmetic and logical operations on inputted data. The ALU has different electrical input and output connections that enable the transmission of digital signals between the ALU and external electronic devices. Data is provided to the ALU inputs by external circuits, and the ALU sends processed computational results. Some of the key functionalities of the ALU are as − Arithmetic Operations − It includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical Operations − It includes AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR), and bit-shifting logical operations. Comparison Operations − The ALU also performs a comparison of numbers to determine greater than, less than, or equal to. Bitwise Operations − These include operations that change individual bits inside a data word, such as shifting them left or right and masking specific bits. Data flow into the ALU − ALU has direct access to the CPU controllers, primary memory, and input/output devices. ALU takes input data from memory using the bus-like electrical route. Applying functions − The internal components of the ALU are used to perform binary calculations for a variety of functions. Provides Temporary Storage − The ALU commonly includes memory blocks to store input operands, operands to be added, accumulated results, and shifted results. The ALU takes input from the processor”s registers and gets back the results to the registers. It is a critical component of the CPU, allowing it to do the computations required for various tasks and operations in a computer system. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Motherboard ”; Previous Next What is a Computer Motherboard? A motherboard is a circuit board which is fixed inside the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer. It can be considered as a computing system which integrates most of the essential components of a computer. A motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video cards, sound cards, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer. Generally, it is made up of fibreglass and copper. The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes. The motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for the CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. The motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry several ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in a plug-in/plug-out fashion—for example, pen drives, digital cameras, etc. Components of a Motherboard A motherboard is made up of different components; some of the primary elements are as follows − CPU Socket − It’s a major component which determines the processor connected to the system. Memory Slots − These slots allow connecting memory devices into it. Storage Connectors − These slots include Serial ATA ports to connect hard drives like hard drives and SSDs. ROM Slots − These slots allow ROM BIOS to connect. Chipset − It connects CPU, memory, storage and peripheral devices. Cooling fans − Cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating temperature. Peripheral connector − these include USB ports to connect peripheral devices. Audio Connectors − These allow audio input and output devices to work with analogue and digital audio signals. Network Connectors − These ports are used for wired network connections, or Wi-Fi to access the internet. Power connector − power connectors are used to connect external power sources. There are two basic types: the 24-pin ATX power connector and the 4 or 8-pin CPU power connector. BIOS/UEFI − The Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), also known as the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), is a type of firmware that initializes and tests hardware during the boot process; it also provides runtime services to operating systems and programs. Features of Computer Motherboard A motherboard comes with the following features − Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components. The motherboard supports a single type of CPU and a few types of memory. Video cards, hard disks, and sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly. Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together. Types of Motherboards Different types of Motherboards are as follows − Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard This motherboard was designed by IBM in 1984 with the IBM PC/AT. It was most widely used in industry and influenced the design of many subsequent motherboards. This motherboard has larger physical dimensions but is not suitable for smaller desktop computers. The original AT motherboards were available in 12 inches × 13.8 inches (305 mm x 351 mm) in size, making them relatively large by modern standards. The configuration of AT motherboards was not standardized, resulting in major differences between manufacturers. This frequently resulted in inadequate airflow and complex cable management. The Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard was a key form factor in the history of personal computing, establishing standards that impacted subsequent designs. However, due to its large size, convoluted layout, and restricted integration, it was eventually replaced by the more efficient and user-friendly ATX specification. Standard ATX motherboard ATX stands for advanced technology extended; it is an extended version of the AT motherboard that was created by Intel in the 1990s. It has become one of the most prevalent motherboard sizes used in desktop computers because of its compatibility and interchanged component features. A standard ATX motherboard is a popular desktop computer form factor that offers a good combination of size, capabilities, and expansion. Standard ATX motherboards are typically 305 mm x 244 mm (12 in x 9.6 in) in size. This size provides enough space for components and expansion slots. ATX motherboard uses a common layout to enhance ventilation and component placement. The CPU socket is normally located toward the top or middle of the board, with expansion slots aligned for effective cooling and simplicity of installation. Micro ATX motherboard Micro ATX motherboards are smaller in size and have limited ports and slots than the Standard ATX board. This motherboard is better suited to users who don”t desire too many connections and subsequent updates. Micro ATX (mATX) motherboards are smaller versions of the conventional ATX motherboard form factor. It has been specifically designed concerning size and features which make it ideal for compact desktop builds while not compromising too much expandability or speed. Micro ATX motherboards typically have dimensions of 244 mm x 244 mm (9.6 in x 9.6 in), which are smaller than conventional ATX but larger than Mini-ITX. Micro ATX motherboards provide the right blend of size, capabilities, and expandability, making them a popular choice for a variety of desktop PC configurations. They provide ample PCIe slots and connectivity choices for most users while fitting

Computer – Software ”; Previous Next Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. There are two types of software − System Software Application Software System Software The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users. Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc. Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software − Close to the system Fast in speed Difficult to design Difficult to understand Less interactive Smaller in size Difficult to manipulate Generally written in low-level language Application Software Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software. Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft”s notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package. Examples of Application software are the following − Payroll Software Student Record Software Inventory Management Software Income Tax Software Railways Reservation Software Microsoft Office Suite Software Microsoft Word Microsoft Excel Microsoft PowerPoint Features of application software are as follows − Close to the user Easy to design More interactive Slow in speed Generally written in high-level language Easy to understand Easy to manipulate and use Bigger in size and requires large storage space Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Random Access Memory (RAM) ”; Previous Next What is RAM (Random Access Memory)? RAM is a computer”s volatile memory which stores data temporarily; once power turned off, the data which is inside the RAM gets erased. It is also known as primary or temporary memory. RAM stores the data that is actively being used during the execution of a program or instructions. During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction access. RAM is actively used for program or instruction execution. Once we start the computer; system necessary files, programs and operating system files are loaded into the RAM for the smooth running of the computer. The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly. How does RAM Work? RAM consists of a grid of cells, each with a unique address, allowing data to be read or written in any order, the CPU requests data from RAM, which is delivered at high speed, making it essential for multitasking and running complex applications. RAM is the computer”s internal memory which stores different types of data and information as per the requirement. It is also considered as read/write memory. The data access in RAM is random. This means that we can access any random location in the memory without even knowing the address of the previous location. Since RAM is a volatile memory hence, a backup is present in most of the systems in the form of an uninterrupted power supply (UPS). Moreover, the speed and performance of a system are directly proportional to the size of the RAM. Characteristics of RAM Key Characteristics of RAM are described below − Multitasking − RAM does multitasking and fast execution of instructions or programs. Prevents system crashes − RAM prevents system crashes and slowdowns during intensive tasks. High-performance − It provides high performance for the execution of gaming and visual applications, where large amounts of data must be processed swiftly. System Support − RAM can perform write and erase operations. Additional RAM − To maintain the system’s speed and performance; additional RAM can be added on. Faster data accessing − It facilitates CPU by accessing data quickly to support faster execution. RAM is faster than SSD. Cost − RAM is not costly as compared to SSD. Types of Random Access Memory Different types of RAM are categorised in the below image SRAM (Static Random Access Memory) Static RAM is a type of RAM that uses flip-flops for primary storage and is volatile. It is a type of semiconductor memory. Each bit is stored using bistable latching circuitry, making it extremely fast so known as cache memory. It is commonly used as a CPU cache and is typically located in L2 or L3. It stores data in the latch as long as the computer is on. SRAM is more expensive and requires more power than DRAM. It serves as cache memory in a computer system. SRAM requires more transistors than DRAM. It is faster than DRAM because of the latching mechanism. SRAM employs 6 transistors per data bit while DRAM uses one transistor per bit. Characteristics of SRAM Some of the key characteristics of SRAM are as follows − SRAM has a memory cell which consists of 6 transistors. SRAM consist flip-flop to store data units. SRAM is dedicatedly designed for the CPU and works as a cache memory. It accesses data in less time; faster than DRAM, and takes very less time to access data. Storing a large amount of data on a single chip is not possible, so more chips are needed. SRAM is expensive. It requires a regular power supply to store data. SRAM generates more heat. Contents remain as it is until power is ON. Types of SRAM SRAM can be further classified into the following types − Synchronous − Synchronous SRAM works jointly with a clock signal. It reads and writes in sync with the clock, making it faster and suitable for high-speed applications. Asynchronous − Its working is not dependent on the clock signal; it carries out read-and-write operations once the addresses and control signals are stable. Pseudo SRAM − PSRAM is a type of memory that has features of both DRAM and SRAM. The device uses a DRAM cell but includes an internal refresh circuit, so presenting itself as SRAM to the external system. Non-Volatile SRAM − nvSRAM integrates a small non-volatile memory with SRAM cells to keep data even when power is off. Advantages of SRAM The advantages of SRAM are as follows − SRAM is preferred because it is much faster. It does not require being refreshed. It delivers faster read and write operations. It works as a cache memory in CPUs. It is less prone to errors and data corruption caused by the refresh process. It is very reliable and therefore is used for cache memory. Disadvantages of SRAM Disadvantages of DRAM are as follows − It is expensive. It has a complex cell structure; so the design and layout of SRAM are more complex. Due to its volatile nature, overall data is lost when power goes off. It has a low storage capacity as compared to DRAM. The design is complex and not easy to build or understand. It is not Suitable for Large Memory Applications Overall, speed and reliability make SRAM highly-priced, particularly for applications such as CPU caches. However, its higher cost and lower density compared to DRAM restrict its use to smaller, high-performance memory applications. DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) It is another type of RAM used as main memory; it stores data in capacitors for a short period (a few milliseconds) even when the computer is powered on. Each memory cell is a DRAM chip that contains one bit of

Computer – Memory ”; Previous Next What is computer memory? A physical device that stores data or information temporarily or permanently in it is called memory. It’s a device where data is stored and processed. In common, a computer has primary and secondary memories. Auxiliary (secondary) memory stores data and programs for long-term storage or until the time a user wants to keep them in memory, while main memory stores instructions and data during programme execution; hence, any programme or file that is currently running or executing on a computer is stored in primary memory. Memory Classification Computer memory comes in various types and serves different purposes − Primary Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory) − Volatile memory loses its contents when the machine is turned off. RAM stores the data that is actively being used. During the booting process of a system, the operating system actively uses RAM and applications that are necessary to execute a file or a program. It speeds up CPU processing by providing fast data and instruction access. Secondary Memory (Storage) − Secondary Memory is also known as permanent memory or non-volatile memory of a computer. Secondary memory retains data when the machine shuts down. Files, programmes, and the OS are stored there permanently. HDDs, SSDs, USB flash drives, and optical discs are non-volatile memory devices. Cache Memory − Memory that is smaller and faster than RAM is called cache memory. It is placed closer to the CPU than the RAM. It saves data and instructions that are used a lot so that processing goes faster. Different types of cache memory, like L1, L2, and L3 cache, have different speeds and amounts of space. The Levels of Cache Memory: L1, L2, and L3 CPU Cache memory is divided into three “levels”: L1, L2, and L3. The memory hierarchy is again according to the speed and, thus, the cache size. L1 Cache Level 1 cache is a computer”s fastest memory. The CPU”s most frequently accessed data resides in the L1 cache. CPU determines L1 cache size. Some high-end consumer CPUs, such as the Intel i9-9980XE, have a 1MB L1 cache, but they are expensive and rare. Server chipsets like Intel”s Xeon have 1-2MB L1 memory cache. Before buying, examine the CPU specs to ascertain the L1 cache size. There is no “standard” amount. Source: [1] The L1 cache normally has two sections: the instruction cache, which stores CPU operation information, and the data cache, which stores operation data. L2 Cache Level 2 cache is larger but slower than L1. Modern L2 memory caches are gigabytes, not kilobytes. AMD”s top-rated Ryzen 5 5600X has 384KB L1 and 3MB L2 caches and 32MB L3 cache. The L2 cache size depends on the CPU but is usually 256KB to 32MB. Nowadays, most CPUs have more than 256KB L2 cache, which is small. Some of the most powerful current CPUs have L2 memory caches exceeding 8MB. In terms of speed, the L2 cache is slower than the L1 cache but still faster than the system RAM. L2 caches are 25 times faster than RAM, while L1 caches are 100 times faster. L3 Cache Level 3 cache. The L3 memory cache was originally on the motherboard. This was long ago when most CPUs were single-core. The L3 cache on top-end consumer CPUs can reach 32MB, while AMD”s groundbreaking Ryzen 7 5800X3D CPUs have 96MB. CPU L3 caches in some servers can reach 128MB. The largest and slowest cache memory unit is L3. Modern CPUs have an on-chip L3 cache. The chip”s L1 and L2 caches serve each core, while the L3 cache is more like a memory pool for the whole chip. The following images illustrate the CPU memory cache levels for a 2012 Intel Core i5-3570K CPU and a 2020 AMD Ryzen 5800X CPU. The second image”s bottom right corner contains CPU cache data. Source: [1] Note how both CPUs have a split L1 cache and larger L2 and L3 caches. On the AMD Ryzen 5800X, the L3 cache is over five times greater than the Intel i5-3570K. How cache memory works: Hierarchy − Computers normally have L1, L2, and L3 caches are the several layers of cache memory. The L1 cache is the smallest and fastest cache, located closest to the CPU; L2 and L3 caches are larger and slower. Cache Organization − Each block or line of cache memory contains a small bit of data copied from the main memory. The CPU accesses cache memory in fixed-size blocks, not bytes. Cache Coherency − Cache coherency ensures cached data matches the main memory data. Cache coherence techniques update other cores” caches when one core writes to a memory location in a multi-core processor. Cache Replacement Policies − A cache replacement policy decides which block to evict when the cache is full and a new block is needed. LRU, FIFO, and Random Replacement are common policies. Cache Access − The CPU checks the cache before reading or writing data. When data is cached, the CPU can quickly retrieve it. If data is not in the cache (cache miss), the CPU must fetch it from the main memory, which may delay it. Cache Hierarchy − Modern processors contain L1, L2, and L3 caches that grow in capacity and latency farther from the CPU cores. Parallel access is achieved by splitting the L1 cache into instruction and data caches. Cache Management − Optimization of cache utilization maximizes hit rates and minimizes miss penalties. Prefetching, where the processor predicts memory accesses and loads data into the cache, improves cache performance. Cache memory buffers frequently access data between the CPU and main memory to speed up processing and increase system performance. Modern computer systems require effective management and structure for optimal performance. Register Memory Register memory, which is also called processor registers or “registers,” is the smallest and fastest type of computer memory that is directly integrated into the CPU. Registers are small, fast storage units inside the CPU that

Computer – Output Devices ”; Previous Next An output device is a hardware device that is used to show the processed results to the user in the form of text, audio, video, visuals on a computer screen or a printed hard copy on paper. The output devices are mainly categorised as audio output devices, visual output devices, audio-video output devices, and print-based output devices. Different output devices can be connected to computer systems to retrieve the output, based on the type of output and requirements. Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer. Monitors Graphic Plotter Printer Speakers Headphones Projector GPS Monitors Monitors also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), is an output device of a computer. It is the most popular output device which looks like a TV screen and shows the output in the form of text, audio, video and images. Overall, it produces output with visual effects to connect the user with the system. Images data form tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing screens used for monitors. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Flat-Panel Display Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes – a fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. Components of Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor The key components of a CRT Monitor are as follows − Electron Guns − Produces beams of electrons to display images Phosphorescent Screen − Once electrons hit on phosphor-coated screen, it glows and makes visibility Circuit Board − Provides connectivity for external circuitry Deflection Yoke − It deflects the electron beam in precise patterns Advantages Produces output with visual effects. It has good resolutions which ensure proper visibility of image-related outputs. No motion blur due to instant response time. It can display multiple resolutions without scaling artefacts. It has high refresh rates which reduces flicker and eye strain. Disadvantages Large in Size Carries high weight A lot of power consumption Produces heat Flat-Panel Display Monitor The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirements in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computers, and graphics displays. The flat-panel display is divided into two categories − Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For example, plasma panels and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes). Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device). Components of Flat-Panel Display Monitor The key components of a Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows − Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) − It is positioned between two layers of glass or plastic and modulates light to create images. Light Emitting Diode (LED) − it emits light and improves colour and contrast. Plasma Display Panel (PDP) − It contains small cells with phosphor coated to emit light. Quantum Dot Display − It contains quantum dots to enhance colour accuracy. Advantages Some of the key advantages of Flat-Panel Display Monitor are as follows − Smaller in size makes it easy to mount and transport. It consumes less power. It has higher resolutions which makes good picture quality. It makes users comfortable to get connected for a longer period and reduces eye strain. Available in different sizes. Disadvantages Expensive as compared to CRT monitors. Its resolution is not up to mark as compared to CRT. It is a soft covering which may damage and be difficult to clean. Graphic Plotter A plotter, which is a type of printer, receives instructions from a computer to produce line drawings on paper using one or more automated pens. In contrast to a standard printer, a plotter can create uninterrupted point-to-point lines directly from vector graphic files or commands. Computer graphics and engineering applications employ graphic plotters to create high-quality, accurate, and detailed drawings or plots on paper or other media. It draws continuous lines accurately and is suited for vector drawings, unlike a standard printer. Key features of graphic plotters are as − Vector Graphics − Vector graphics allow graphic plotters to create lines and shapes precisely using continuous points instead of dots like raster printers. Pen or Pen-Like Tool − A pen or similar instrument is drawn on paper for graphic plotters. The pen may move X and Y on a moveable arm to draw complicated shapes. Applications − Graphic plotters are employed in engineering, architecture, cartography, and textile design. They were popular for technical drawings and diagrams before digital. A vector graphics plotter outputs accurate and detailed drawings. They are still used in sectors and applications that need accuracy and high-quality output, even if digital printing has made them less widespread. Components of Graphic Plotters The key components of a Graphic Plotter are as follows − Plotter Head − A plotter head contains multiple pens of different colours to draw images. Plotting Surface − It is used to hold and feed paper. Microcontroller − Controls the plotting process and interprets commands. Interfaces − It provides interfaces to connect USB, Ethernet, or wireless connections. Memory − A device used to Store plotting instructions to process temporarily. Types of plotters Pen Plotters − It uses vector graphics and line drawings. Drum plotters − A drum plotter is a device that uses a rotating drum