Category: computer Fundamentals

Computer Fundamentals – E-mail Tools ”; Previous Next What is email (electronic mail)? E-mail (Electronic mail), is a way of communication between two or more two users over the Internet. An Email facilitates individuals, business professionals and organisations to send messages, invitations, files, and documents to one or more recipients at the same time; it means a copy of a message or attached document in a mail can be sent to multiple users at the same time. To work on email the sender and receiver must have a valid email ID like [email protected] A sender (a person who sends an email) user composes a new email when they plan to send it to one or more recipients (a person who receives an email) by adding them, adding a subject line, and attaching files or documents if required. Once the message is sent, it reaches different servers over the Internet until it reaches a recipient”s email address from where they can access this information via their mail ID. The following image shows the email inbox − In the digital age, email is one of the most commonly used forms of communication and serves a range of purposes from personal correspondence to business communications and marketing. Components of an Email The key components of an Email are as follows − Sender − A person who sends an email to the receiver for example [email protected] is a sender who is sending an email to [email protected] Receiver − A receiver is a person who receives an email sent by the sender via email for example [email protected] is a receiver who is receiving an email sent by [email protected] Email address − An email address is a unique address to identify the person uniquely on the internet. For example, [email protected] is an email address. Once an email address is assigned to a person or group cannot be assigned to another person; it”s like an enrolment number of a student. Mailer − It’s a program which allows users to read, write, and delete emails. Some popular mailer is Gmail, rediffmail, Outlook, etc. Mail Server − The mail server is a central system or controller of the entire email system; it holds the entire log history of sending, receiving, and deleting emails and manages mail programs for their respective users. SMTP − SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. SMTP is a protocol specially designed for email system; this protocol can be considered as a controller program to manage the entire email system; for example, how email will be sent to the receiver, the computer network to send mail, the internet network connection, and receivers email inbox to receive email messages over the Internet. How does email work? Email is a method of communication between more than one user over the internet. The following points simplifies the overview of how it works − Creating an Email − You compose a new email using an email client, such as Gmail, Outlook, or Yahoo Mail. Below mentioned image describes it. Sending the Email − Mention the recipient”s name write the message in the body section and then click on the send button. When you hit the “send” button, your email client communicates with an outgoing mail server (SMTP server). Retrieving or accessing the Email − The recipient login using their valid email ID (such as Gmail or Outlook) and checks their inbox. When they do this, the email is retrieved by their email client connecting to their incoming mail server (POP3 or IMAP server). Viewing the Email − The recipient can then view the email in their inbox read it and take necessary actions such as replying or forwarding. Replying and Forwarding − The process is repeated if the receiver decides to reply or forward the email. They use their email ID to log in, enter the recipient”s email address, and draft their message in reply and send the mail. After that, this email follows the previously outlined process. Storage and Deletion − Emails can be kept on the email servers of the sender and the recipient. Emails can be deleted by users from their inbox, perhaps moving them to a “deleted items” or “trash” folder. These deleted emails might eventually be deleted forever from the email server”s database. Anatomy of an Email / Structure of an Email Emails are complicated and powerful tools. People use emails for different reasons, from sending personal messages, marketing messages, and official correspondence to sharing large files and documents. Email has changed a lot in how it works over the years, but the basic format of an email remains the same. There are usually four main parts to an email − Headers − When you open an email, it”s the first thing that we see. A header includes the sender”s name and address, the recipient”s email address, the subject line as well as the date and time when the message was sent. Subject Line − One of the most important parts of an email is the subject line, which tells the recipient what the email is all about. The subject line should be clear and to the point, giving the recipient an idea of what they”re going to find in that email. Salutation − Salutation shows how senders address their recipients formally or casually. The best email salutation may include Hi (first name), Hello (name), Dear (name), Greetings, and Good morning/afternoon/evening. Body − The primary content of the mail is included in the body section of an email. This is the section where the senders include the actual text of the message, as well as any attachments or links. Signature − The signature is the last section of the email. It usually contains the sender”s name, designation, organisation

Computer Fundamentals – Extranet ”; Previous Next Introduction An extranet is a private computer network that allows controlled access to external users or organizations over the Internet. An extranet is a collaborative, internet-based network that makes it easier for companies to work together by connecting a company with its customers, suppliers, and other outside business partners. The concept of the extranet emerged when organisations wanted to engage in collaboration with external partners, including suppliers, customers, and contractors. Extranets refer to non-public networks that transcend the confines of an organisation, encompassing certain external entities. It serves as an extension of an organization”s intranet. Extranets are safe computer networks for organisations or businesses to share business data and processes internally and with partners outside the company. They use internet-based apps and technology to do it and provide secure access to specific resources and information to authorized users outside of the organization, such as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers. An extranet is a safe and cooperative way for an organisation to connect its network to people outside the organisation. It makes it easy for people outside the organisation to communicate, work together, and share data. How extranet works? An extranet works as a secure extension of an organization”s internal network; it provides controlled access to external users such as clients, partners, suppliers, or other stakeholders. Here”s a breakdown of how an extranet typically functions − Authentication and Access Control − External users access the extranet using usernames, passwords, or two-factor authentication. Access controls restrict users to information and features related to their role or relationship with the company. This is usually done through user roles, permissions, and access. Secure Communication − Internal and external users can securely communicate and collaborate on the extranet. Messaging, chat, forums, and email integration are some common examples of this. Communication channels are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping. Document Management and File Sharing − Users can upload, share, and collaborate on documents and files within the extranet environment. Document management features typically include version control, file organization, access permissions, and audit trails to track changes and maintain data integrity. Project Management − Project management technologies on extranets help internal and external teams collaborate. Users can assign duties, set deadlines, measure progress, and share project documents and information. Data Sharing and Exchange − Users can securely share sensitive files and information with others. Integration with cloud storage services may enable cross-platform data interchange and collaboration. Collaboration and Workflow Automation − Extranets consolidate information, tools, and resources, simplifying collaboration and workflows. Alerts, reminders, and task automation help users stay organized and productive. Reporting and Analytics − Reports and statistics reveal extranet usage, collaboration, and project performance. To increase efficiency and effectiveness, organizations can track KPIs, spot trends, and make data-driven choices. Security and Compliance − To keep sensitive information safe and in line with regulations, stringent security measures are put in place, including firewalls, encryption, and access controls. Extranets may adhere to industry standards and best practices for data security and privacy, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or ISO certifications. Features of Extranet Secure Access − To prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing the platform, the extranet uses strong security measures. This includes multi-factor authentication and encryption protocols to safeguard sensitive information. Document Management − Easy document upload, sharing, and collaboration with authorized users. With our intuitive folder structure and version control system, everyone can access the latest data while retaining organization and security. Communication Tools − Built-in chat, texting, and forums keep you connected. The communication tools simplify collaboration and boost productivity for project tasks and updates. Project Management − Task lists, timetables, and milestone tracking help you manage projects more efficiently. Assign tasks, create deadlines, and track progress to ensure that projects stay on track and goals are fulfilled efficiently. Data Sharing and Exchange − Securely share data with clients and partners. A secure file-sharing technology interacts with various cloud storage services for easy data exchange. Calendar and Events − Keep everyone informed about upcoming events, meetings, and deadlines with shared calendars and event scheduling features. Receive reminders and notifications to stay on top of important dates. Reporting and Analytics − The reporting and analytics tools reveal platform usage, project progress, and collaboration indicators. Track KPIs and make smart decisions to succeed in business. Types of Extranets Extranets come in various types, each tailored to meet specific business needs and requirements. Here are some common types of extranets − Supplier Extranet − An extranet for suppliers facilitates collaboration between organisations and their suppliers, vendors, and distributors. The system enhances the exchange of information about orders, inventory control, delivery timetables, and product requirements. Supplier extranets optimise procurement procedures, enhance supply chain transparency, and fortify supplier relationships. Customer Extranet − A customer extranet provides a platform for organizations to interact with their customers and clients. It may encompass different functionalities, such as placing orders online, managing accounts, providing customer service, and accessing product information or technical documentation. Customer extranets have been found to have a positive impact on customer satisfaction, as they incorporate self-service features and promote consumer involvement and loyalty. Partner Extranet − A partner extranet facilitates the ability of business partners, including joint venture partners, resellers, and co-marketing partners, to engage in collaborative efforts and exchange of information. It enhances the ability to engage in collaborative efforts, exchange sales and marketing materials, and synchronise cooperative endeavours. The use of partner extranets serves to enhance collaborations, facilitate effective communication, and foster collaborative decision-making processes. Collaboration Extranet − The collaboration extranet functions as a platform that facilitates the sharing of ideas and resources between internal and external stakeholders, enabling them to engage in collaborative efforts. The system may encompass several functionalities such as document sharing, project management tools, a forum for

Computer – Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) ”; Previous Next What is Graphics Processing Unit (GPU?) Graphics processing is an advanced technology that has evolved specifically for computing. The graphics processing unit (GPU) is an advanced and specialised processor which makes computing possibilities for machine learning, deep learning, gaming, content creation, and many more related technologies. A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialised electrical circuit that accelerates computer graphics and image processing. GPUs are useful for non-graphic computations such as neural networks and cryptocurrency. GPUs were originally developed to speed up the rendering of 3D visuals. They gradually became more adaptable and programmable and expanded their capabilities. This enabled graphics programmers to generate more fascinating visual effects and realistic scenes using advanced lighting and shadowing methods. In other applications, GPUs are most widely used to significantly work with high-performance computing (HPC), deep learning, and other domains. Significances of GPUs GPUs are mostly used to speed up real-time 3D graphics applications like gaming. However, as the twenty-first century began, computer experts recognised that GPUs could address some of the world”s most complex computing problems. This realisation ushered in the era of general-purpose GPUs. Graphics technology is now being used to solve a broader range of challenges. Today”s GPUs are more programmable than ever before, allowing them to power a wide range of applications beyond standard graphics rendering. GPUs are significant for the following reasons − GPUs for Gaming Video games have become more computationally intensive, with hyperrealistic graphics and vast, complicated in-game worlds. With advanced display technologies, such as 4K screens and high refresh rates, along with the rise of virtual reality gaming, demands on graphics processing are growing fast. GPUs are capable of rendering graphics in both 2D and 3D. With better graphics performance, games can be played at higher resolution, at faster frame rates, or both. GPUs for Video Editing and Content Creation GPUs provide a computational solution for parallel processing, with built-in AI features and sophisticated acceleration for faster execution and easier rendering of video and graphics in higher-defined formats. GPU for Machine Learning Artificial intelligence and machine learning are among the most interesting applications for GPU technology. Because GPUs have an enormous amount of computational power, they can provide remarkable acceleration in workloads that make use of GPUs” highly parallel nature, such as image recognition. Many of today”s deep learning solutions rely on GPUs to work alongside CPUs. How do GPUs work? A GPU is ideally suited for tasks or programs that require large volumes of data and repetitive computation. GPUs have a similar fetch-decode-execute cycle, it has designed in such a way that they can handle thousands of threads at once, making them well-suited for parallel processing tasks − Fetching − The GPU fetches instructions for the execution from its internal memory. (VRAM). Decoding − The control units of streaming multiprocessors (SMs) decode instructions. Each SM can process multiple instructions at once and assign them to available cores. Executing − The decoded instructions are executed by multiple small cores in the SM. These cores perform operations like matrix multiplication and vector operations for graphics rendering and machine learning. Writing back − The findings are either returned to GPU memory or transmitted to the display output. Overall, GPU working includes − Parallel Processing − GPUs, unlike CPUs, have thousands of small cores which are integrated with the system to do parallel processing. This makes it extremely efficient for larger and more complex tasks that can be divided into smaller ones and apply parallel processing to them. CUDA cores (NVIDIA) or stream processors (AMD) − These are the basic processing units of a GPU, which can execute the processes on their own. Modern GPUs exist with thousands of these cores. Memory − A GPU has its memory which is known as Graphics Memory or VRAM (Video RAM). A VRAM is capable enough to do multiple tasks at once. This allows them to rapidly process and render images. Shader − Shaders are specialised processing units within a GPU. They are specifically designed to perform vertex shading, geometry shading, pixel shading, and computation. These units support rendering graphics and computations. APIs − To optimise GPUs, software applications use programming interfaces such as CUDA or OpenCL to manage and perform parallel activities. These APIs give support to developers with tools, frameworks and libraries to help them design programmes that make the best use of GPU capabilities. Data and task parallelism − GPUs are capable enough to perform data parallelism and task parallelism on different sets of data simultaneously. SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) − This paradigm enables GPUs to perform the same action on multiple data points at once making them useful for image processing and scientific computations. Task distribution − Workloads for graphics rendering or scientific simulations are divided into different smaller jobs; each of them is assigned to a separate thread that the GPU then runs concurrently. This strategy considerably reduces total processing time. Thread execution − Threads are smaller units of work that allow concurrent processing; this process shows how GPUs function. A GPU can support thousands of threads at a time. Characteristics of GPU Some of the key characteristics of GPU are as follows − Parallel processing − GPUs contain thousands of specialized to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. GPUs include SIMD, this feature allows the GPU to apply the same operation on multiple data points in parallel. Memory − GPUs have their memory. GPUs Video RAM enables rapid access to data and faster data transfer. High Throughput − The parallel processing feature of GPUs provides high throughput. Shaders − Shaders allow for transformations and lighting, texturing, shading and computational tasks beyond graphics rendering Scalability − GPUs can scale

Computer – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ”; Previous Next What is ALU? ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit. An ALU is a key component of the CPU which performs arithmetic and logical operations. It can perform billions of operations per second. An ALU circuit has the integration of four key components inputs, operands, outputs, and storage. To store binary digits, computers use transistor switches that are either open or closed. Data is also stored in a register designated to store output. ALUs tend to be fast and accurate. These conduct logical operations such as bitwise operations, which are operations on a string of binary numbers. The CPU processor directly supports bitwise logical operations, which are fast, simple, and range from basic to higher-level. ALUs conduct bit shifting, which is the movement of bits in response to particular instructions from bit operators. ALUs may also do multiple-precision arithmetic, which is a software operation required when the desired level of accuracy exceeds the hardware”s capacity. ALUs can do complex arithmetic and logical operations because they enable modern computers to split difficult calculations into a large number of binary processes. What does the ALU do? ALUs carry out arithmetic and logical operations. Also found in the CPU are Control Units, or CUs. The CU directs the ALU in performing specific operations, with the ALU being responsible for carrying out these operations. The NOT Gate consists of a single transistor and one input logic gate. Its function is to produce outputs that are the inverse of the input. For instance, an input of 1 would result in an output of 0. Multiple transistors and two inputs are used in the OR Gate. The output is only 1 if the first or second input is 1. Conversely, the OR gate produces an output of 0 when both inputs are 0. The AND Gate utilizes multiple transistors and two inputs. The output is 1 only if both the first and second inputs are 1. Functions of ALU The ALU is an essential component of the CPU. It majorly performs arithmetic and logical operations on inputted data. The ALU has different electrical input and output connections that enable the transmission of digital signals between the ALU and external electronic devices. Data is provided to the ALU inputs by external circuits, and the ALU sends processed computational results. Some of the key functionalities of the ALU are as − Arithmetic Operations − It includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical Operations − It includes AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR), and bit-shifting logical operations. Comparison Operations − The ALU also performs a comparison of numbers to determine greater than, less than, or equal to. Bitwise Operations − These include operations that change individual bits inside a data word, such as shifting them left or right and masking specific bits. Data flow into the ALU − ALU has direct access to the CPU controllers, primary memory, and input/output devices. ALU takes input data from memory using the bus-like electrical route. Applying functions − The internal components of the ALU are used to perform binary calculations for a variety of functions. Provides Temporary Storage − The ALU commonly includes memory blocks to store input operands, operands to be added, accumulated results, and shifted results. The ALU takes input from the processor”s registers and gets back the results to the registers. It is a critical component of the CPU, allowing it to do the computations required for various tasks and operations in a computer system. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Motherboard ”; Previous Next What is a Computer Motherboard? A motherboard is a circuit board which is fixed inside the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer. It can be considered as a computing system which integrates most of the essential components of a computer. A motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video cards, sound cards, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer. Generally, it is made up of fibreglass and copper. The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes. The motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for the CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. The motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry several ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in a plug-in/plug-out fashion—for example, pen drives, digital cameras, etc. Components of a Motherboard A motherboard is made up of different components; some of the primary elements are as follows − CPU Socket − It’s a major component which determines the processor connected to the system. Memory Slots − These slots allow connecting memory devices into it. Storage Connectors − These slots include Serial ATA ports to connect hard drives like hard drives and SSDs. ROM Slots − These slots allow ROM BIOS to connect. Chipset − It connects CPU, memory, storage and peripheral devices. Cooling fans − Cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating temperature. Peripheral connector − these include USB ports to connect peripheral devices. Audio Connectors − These allow audio input and output devices to work with analogue and digital audio signals. Network Connectors − These ports are used for wired network connections, or Wi-Fi to access the internet. Power connector − power connectors are used to connect external power sources. There are two basic types: the 24-pin ATX power connector and the 4 or 8-pin CPU power connector. BIOS/UEFI − The Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), also known as the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), is a type of firmware that initializes and tests hardware during the boot process; it also provides runtime services to operating systems and programs. Features of Computer Motherboard A motherboard comes with the following features − Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components. The motherboard supports a single type of CPU and a few types of memory. Video cards, hard disks, and sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly. Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together. Types of Motherboards Different types of Motherboards are as follows − Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard This motherboard was designed by IBM in 1984 with the IBM PC/AT. It was most widely used in industry and influenced the design of many subsequent motherboards. This motherboard has larger physical dimensions but is not suitable for smaller desktop computers. The original AT motherboards were available in 12 inches × 13.8 inches (305 mm x 351 mm) in size, making them relatively large by modern standards. The configuration of AT motherboards was not standardized, resulting in major differences between manufacturers. This frequently resulted in inadequate airflow and complex cable management. The Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard was a key form factor in the history of personal computing, establishing standards that impacted subsequent designs. However, due to its large size, convoluted layout, and restricted integration, it was eventually replaced by the more efficient and user-friendly ATX specification. Standard ATX motherboard ATX stands for advanced technology extended; it is an extended version of the AT motherboard that was created by Intel in the 1990s. It has become one of the most prevalent motherboard sizes used in desktop computers because of its compatibility and interchanged component features. A standard ATX motherboard is a popular desktop computer form factor that offers a good combination of size, capabilities, and expansion. Standard ATX motherboards are typically 305 mm x 244 mm (12 in x 9.6 in) in size. This size provides enough space for components and expansion slots. ATX motherboard uses a common layout to enhance ventilation and component placement. The CPU socket is normally located toward the top or middle of the board, with expansion slots aligned for effective cooling and simplicity of installation. Micro ATX motherboard Micro ATX motherboards are smaller in size and have limited ports and slots than the Standard ATX board. This motherboard is better suited to users who don”t desire too many connections and subsequent updates. Micro ATX (mATX) motherboards are smaller versions of the conventional ATX motherboard form factor. It has been specifically designed concerning size and features which make it ideal for compact desktop builds while not compromising too much expandability or speed. Micro ATX motherboards typically have dimensions of 244 mm x 244 mm (9.6 in x 9.6 in), which are smaller than conventional ATX but larger than Mini-ITX. Micro ATX motherboards provide the right blend of size, capabilities, and expandability, making them a popular choice for a variety of desktop PC configurations. They provide ample PCIe slots and connectivity choices for most users while fitting

Computer – Internet and Intranet ”; Previous Next In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and Intranet, as well as discuss the similarities and differences between the two. Internet It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s location. A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS server will resolve a name https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted. Internet is accessible to every user all over the world. Intranet Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that organization can access the computers in their intranet. Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the computers in that Intranet. Similarities between Internet and Intranet Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP. Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in the internet. However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites. In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over the internet. Differences between Internet and Intranet Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs. Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population, whereas Intranet is restricted. Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – CompactFlash Card ”; Previous Next What is a CompactFlash Card? A CompactFlash card is a memory card used to store data. It is also known as CF card which was developed by SanDisk in the year 1994. A CompactFlash card is a type of flash memory that stores the data on a tiny chip. This card does not have moving mechanical parts; so, it does not require a battery to retain data. A CompactFlash card is one of the most widely used portable storage devices which is smaller in size and a more reliable storage device. It is most widely used in computing devices to provide faster and reliable data storage. It is a type of flash memory used as a removable storage for digital images and video cameras, but it can also be found on personal devices such as PDAs and portable music players. A CompactFlash card was initially offered with storage capacities ranging from megabytes to several gigabytes. Modern CF cards can offer storage capacities of up to 512GB or more. The earliest CompactFlash cards were designed using NOR flash memory that can read and write data in random order. This feature made it ideal and popular to store images or text-type data. NOR flash memory was slower and more expensive; later on, flash memory used NAND flash memory and became more popular and less expensive. NAND flash memory is speedier and can be written in serial order, making it ideal for storing large files like video or music. Significances of CompactFlash Card CompactFlash cards are available with different storage capacities which enable it for substantial storing of high-resolution photos, films, and other significant files. This is especially useful for photographers and videographers who need to save a lot of data. These cards are available with different storage capacities ranging from 8GB to 512 GB. A CompactFlash card”s capacity is defined by the number of NAND flash chips used for data storage. CompactFlash cards are more reliable in harsh environments. Nowadays, CompactFlash cards are used in industrial applications and professional use in the field. CompactFlash cards are widely used and still compatible with many high-end cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment. Their extensive history in the industry provides continuing maintenance and compatibility with legacy equipment. CompactFlash cards offer consistent and stable performance, which is crucial for applications requiring uninterrupted data storage and retrieval. CompactFlash cards are intended to protect data integrity, lowering the chance of loss or corruption. This is vital for professionals who need to protect their work, as well as for industrial applications that require data integrity. Despite the development of newer memory cards like SD cards and microSD cards, CompactFlash cards remain useful in situations where their longevity, high capacity, and consistent performance, are necessary. How does CompactFlash Card work? CompactFlash cards work by plugging them into pinholes for the card to function correctly. CF cards are easy to use. They use FAT32 or exFAT formatting and are compatible. CompactFlash cards employ NAND flash memory. Data is stored in memory cells that are grouped into blocks. Each cell contains a set number of bits, usually one bit for single-level cells (SLC) and more for multi-level cells (MLC). Traditional CF cards use the Parallel ATA (PATA) interface for transferring data between the card and the host device while advanced CompactFlash cards may employ the CFexpress standard, which uses the PCIe interface for higher data transfer rates. Each CF card comprises a controller for data storage and retrieval. The controller is in charge of functions such as wear levelling and error correction. When data is written to the card, the controller assigns it to the proper memory cells. During a read operation, the controller receives data from the cells and transfers it to the host device. CF cards require a power supply to function. When plugged into a device, the device supplies the electricity required for the card to work. Types of CompactFlash Cards CompactFlash (CF) cards are come in different types; these are as follows − CompactFlash (CF) cards Type Description CF Type I It’s a standard CompactFlash card measuring 3.3mm in thickness. It is most widely used in digital cameras, camcorders, and other related devices. CF Type II These are thicker at 5mm; their storage capacity is comparatively more. Cfast These cards use a Serial ATA (SATA) interface to work on faster data transfer principles. It has a 3.3mm thickness. It is used in cameras, camcorders, and other professional equipment. Cfexpress These cards use the PCIe and NVMe interfaces which have higher data transfer rates. Its thickness may vary in size. These cards are more likely used in video recording and burst photography. UDMA (Ultra Direct Memory Access) CF Cards These CompactFlash cards use UDMA protocol and have higher data transfer rates. It has a 3.3mm thickness. These are most widely used in professional photography and video applications. Industrial CF Cards These CF cards are designed to survive high temperatures, vibrations, and shocks. Its thickness may vary in size. These are most widely used in industrial PCs and automation systems. Features of CompactFlash Card Some of the key characteristics of CompactFlash Card are as follows − Higher Performance − CompactFlash cards are much faster than other memory cards, such as SD cards. Capacity − CompactFlash cards are available with different storage capacities ranging from 8GB to 512GB. This makes them perfect for storing huge files like high-resolution photos or films. Durability − CompactFlash cards are robust and durable. They include no moving parts and are housed in a solid plastic housing. Reliability − CompactFlash cards are extremely reliable and have a low failure rate.

Types of Computers ”; Previous Next The types of computer are as follows − Analogue computer Digital computer Digital computers are further categorised as follows − Micro computer Mini computer Mainframe computer Super computer Hybrid computer Analogue computer An analog or analogue computer is a computer which processes analogue data. It processes and represents data using continuous signals such as voltage, current, or physical dimensions. The analogue computers were used during 1950s–1960s. Analogue data is not discrete; it is continuous. Pressure, temperature, voltage, speed, and weight are examples of such data. Analogue computers are most widely used in aircraft, ships, submarines, and daily appliances like refrigerator, speedometer, etc. Types of Analogue Computers Different types of analogue computers are as − Mechanical Analogue Computers − These computers were using physical mechanisms like gears, levers, and rotating disks to model and solve mathematical equations. Example – analyser. Electrical Analogue Computers − These computers were used electrical circuits to represent and solve mathematical equations. Example – Spectrometer, oscilloscope. Optical Analogue Computers − These computers were used light and optics for computation. Example – Norden bombsight. Analogue-Digital Hybrid Computers − These computers were the combination of analogue and digital computers so that they can process both continuous and discrete data to make them versatile for various applications like Petrol pumps, which contain a processor that converts fuel flow measurement into quantity and price.Example – Hycomp 250. Now a day, analogue computers have replaced by digital computers. However, analogue computers are still in use where continuous data processing or simulation of physical systems is required. Digital Computer The digital computers are the type of computers that uses discrete data to perform computations. The most common type of computers used today is digital computers. Personal computers, smartphones, servers and supercomputers are some of the examples of digital computers. Digital computers are further categorised as follows − Microcomputer − it is a type of computer which is smaller in size and less powerful than mainframe and minicomputer systems. Microcomputers are used in personal computing, office tasks, and small-scale computing applications. Minicomputer − minicomputer is a computer that falls between mainframe computers and microcomputers. It is smaller than mainframe computers but larger than microcomputers. These computers are used for personal use for computing, and data management. Mainframe Computer − Mainframe computers are powerful than minicomputer. These computers are used in E-business, banking, stock exchange, railway and airlines ticketing, and research centers. Super computer − A supercomputer is a highly powerful computer. These computers are specially designed to solve complex computational problems. A supercomputer may use for space investigation, Atomic weapons, Genetic engineering, Military, Weather forecasting, simulations, data analysis. Hybrid Computer The hybrid computer is a type of computer that combines the functionalities of both digital and analogue computers. The primary aim of hybrid computer’s design is to do highly intricate computations. A hybrid computer has the capability to address the computational needs of large-scale organisations by effectively solving logical and technical computations, and also provides efficient processing of differential equations. Followings are the key features of hybrid computers − Analogue and Digital Components − Hybrid computers integrate the functionalities of both digital and analogue computers. This allows to process continuous signals from the physical world and performs digital computations. Fast Data Conversion − Hybrid computers can convert analogue data into digital format efficiently. This process enables to process real-world data and make fruitful decisions based on processed outcomes. High-Speed Processing − Hybrid computers are highly computational devices which do numerical calculations, making them suitable for tasks requiring complex mathematical operations and simulations. Real-time Analysis − The hybrid computers excel in real-time analysis of continuous data. Complex Simulations − Hybrid computers are used in scientific research and engineering simulations that necessitate the combination of mathematical modelling with integration of real-world data. Accuracy and Precision − The hybrid computer gives accuracy and precision in calculations, ensuring reliable results for different applications. Customization − Adjusting the proportion of analogue to digital components in hybrid computers allows them to be specialised for use in a variety of different applications. Control Systems − Control systems in industries such as manufacturing, aerospace, and automotive, which require real-time data processing and precise control, frequently make use of hybrid computers because to their versatility and low power consumption. Scientific Research − They are useful tools in scientific study, particularly in subjects like as physics, chemistry, and biology, where simulations using both continuous and discrete data are required. This is especially true of the domains of physics, chemistry, and biology. Medical Imaging − In medical imaging procedures, such as the processing of data from devices like MRI and CT scanners, which involve both continuous and discrete data, hybrid computers play an important role. One example of this is the processing of MRI and CT scan data. Weather Prediction − For the purpose of modelling the weather, hybrid computers are used in the field of meteorology. This is due to the fact that weather patterns require both on-going physical processes and intricate numerical models. Complex Calculations − Hybrid computers can be useful in different kinds of work, including simulations of nuclear reactors and studies of fluid dynamics, which both combine real-time analysis and numerical computations. Optimization Problems − Hybrid computers are used for solving optimization problems that require both continuous adjustments and discrete decisions. Energy Efficiency − Hybrid computers may be more energy-efficient than digital computers because they can outsource some computations to analogue components, which may be more power-efficient for specific duties. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Characteristics of Computer System ”; Previous Next The characteristics of the computer system are as follows − Speed A computer can process millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their operations is microseconds and nanoseconds. Hence, a computer works with high speed during the execution of Mathematical & logical computations. Accuracy Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data inconsistency or inaccuracy. High accuracy indicates that a computer is performing its tasks correctly and producing reliable results. 100% accuracy depends on algorithm, data quality, hardware connectivity, and inherent uncertainties in the tasks being performed. Diligence A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Hence, it can perform repetitive task without getting tired. Versatility Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works with same accuracy and efficiency. Hence, a versatile computer can be used for different purposes. A versatile computer can support Software Compatibility, Operating System Support, Programming and Development, Multi-Tasking, Internet Connectivity, Media Handling, Hardware Compatibility, Customization, and can manage different types of applications and workloads. Reliability A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result. Reliability is important to ensure safety, data integrity, and continuous operation. Reliability of a computer can be measured using Mean Time between Failures (MTBF), Mean Time to Failure (MTTF), Mean Time to Repair (MTTR), Availability (proportion of time a system is operational and accessible), and Failure Rate, Fault Tolerance(continuity of functioning even in the presence of hardware or software faults). Automation Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without manual intervention. The main aim of automation is to improve efficiency, accuracy, and consistency in different processes by reducing manual intervention in the system. Automation can lead to increased productivity, reduced errors, and cost savings. Storage and Retrieval Memory is a storage device which stores data. The beauty of a computer is to execute the data in primary memory (RAM) whenever required. At the other side, data can permanently store to the secondary memory (Hard Disk) to the long time and a user can access it whenever they required; it does not delete the data until a user delete it. Data Management and data analytics In digital world, data can be in various forms, such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video. A computer may process and manipulate this data efficiently and provides insightful results from text, numbers, images, audio, and video data. The analytical results are used in decision making and useful to frame the strategies for the organisations. Connectivity The connectivity of computers enables data communication, resource sharing, and remote access to information and services. Multitasking Modern computer systems support multitasking, which means parallel execution of tasks. During multitasking process, processor rapidly switches between tasks, and giving the illusion of simultaneous execution. Multicore processors enable simultaneous execution of multiple tasks. Security and Privacy Modern computers are kept the data security, privacy of data to protect against unauthorized access, data breaches, and cyberattacks. For example -Biometric authentication, encryption, and secure boot protect the computer and user data. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) GPUs manages graphical tasks like gaming, multimedia, and computational related things like AI and machine learning. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Components ”; Previous Next Computer systems consist of three components: Central Processing Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data to the processor (processing unit), which processes it and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user through output devices. Output devices are used to show the processed data to the user on computer screen or in print form. Below figure depicts the major components of computer systems − Fig: Components of computer systems Central Processing Unit The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is also known as “the brain of computer”. It controls operation of all components of a computer. Fig: Central Processing Unit A CPU itself has three components which are as follows − Control Unit (CU) ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) Memory or Storage Unit Control Unit As its name implies, a control unit acts as the “brain” of the CPU. It executes instructions and manages the flow of data inside the CPU to perform the tasks specified by a computer program. It plays a pivotal role in the fetch-decode-execute cycle, which is a fundamental process by which a CPU runs program instructions. Functions of Control Unit Instruction Fetch − To run and execute a program; a CU fetches instructions from RAM (Random Access Memory). Instruction Decoding − It decodes the fetched instructions to determine the operation to be performed. Instruction Execution − A CU executes the instructions by sending control signals to the appropriate functional units within the CPU, such as the ALU for arithmetic and logical operations Control Flow Management − The Control Unit is responsible for overseeing the control flow of the programme. It accomplishes this by updating the programme counter, which enables the CPU to go to the subsequent instruction in the sequence based on conditional statements or jumps. Exception Handling − The system effectively manages exceptions and interruptions, including hardware failures, system calls, and external events, by appropriately diverting the control flow of the central processing unit (CPU) to the planned procedure for managing such exceptions. Pipeline Control (in pipelined CPUs) − The modern CPU’s are available with pipeline designs; a CU controls the steps of the pipeline and makes sure that instructions are processed quickly and safely. Synchronization − In the context of multi-core processors, a CU plays a crucial role in facilitating the coordination of instruction execution across several cores, hence guaranteeing the appropriate synchronisation and maintenance of data consistency. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a component that has been extensively optimised and engineered to do multiple tasks concurrently. It is commonly built to execute operations speedily. It works in conjunction with other CPU components, such as registers, memory, and control units, to execute complex instructions. Functions of an ALU Arithmetic Operations − The ALU can perform basic arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logic Operations − The ALU can also perform logical operations like AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and bit-shifting operations. Comparison − The ALU can compare two binary values and determine whether they are equal, greater than, or less than each other. This function is most widely used in programming and sorting algorithms. Memory Unit A memory or storage unit is a hardware component which is used to store the data and instructions and retrieve it whenever is required. Majorly computer memory has categorised as temporary (RAM) and permanent memory (secondary memory). RAM is used for short-term, fast data access and essential for active program execution. On the other hand, storage or secondary memory provides permanent data storage. Hence, memory and storage units both are critical components of a computer system. Functions of memory Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory) RAM is also known as primary or temporary memory; it is a type of volatile memory used for temporarily storing data. The contents inside the RAM are erased when computer”s power get off or restarted. RAM is actively used for program or instructions execution. Once we start the computer; systems necessary files, programs and the operating system files are loaded into the RAM for smoothly running of computer. The more RAM a computer has, the better it can handle multitasking and the faster it can run applications since data can be accessed more quickly. Storage (Hard Drives, SSDs, Flash Drives, etc.) Storage devices are used to store the data permanently, even when the computer is powered off. They are non-volatile in nature; the data remains intact even when the power is get off or system restarts. The most popular and commonly used storage devices are Hard Disk (HDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and optical disks (e.g., DVDs), pen drives. The data storage capacity varies of these devices are in gigabytes (GB) to terabytes (TB) and more, depending on the type and size of the storage device. Input devices The devices which are used to give input to the computer system is known as input devices. Keyboard Keyboard is a most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like a traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. There are different types of keyboards; each one has designed for specific purposes. QWERTY Keyboards − QWERTY is a most usable keyboard. It”s named after the first six letters in the top row of the keyboard. QWERTY keyboards are commonly found in personal computers and are considered as standard on typewriters. These devices are specifically designed for general typing tasks. Mechanical Keyboards − Each key on mechanical keyboards has a mechanical switch. Different types of switches offer varying levels of tactile feedback and actuation force. Typists and gamers who demand accurate and enjoyable typing love these switches because they give tactile and aural feedback. Membrane Keyboards − Laptops and cheap desktop keyboards have membrane keyboards. When pushed, a key contacts a rubber or silicone membrane below the keys to register a keystroke. Ergonomic Keyboards − Typing for long periods