Category: computer Fundamentals

Basics of Computer Operating System ”; Previous Next The Operating System is a program with the following features − An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer hardware. It is an integrated set of specialized programs used to manage overall resources and operations of the computer. It is a specialized software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software. Objectives of Operating System The objectives of the operating system are − To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner. To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users. To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system. To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access and use other resources. To manage the resources of a computer system. To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users. To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs. Characteristics of Operating System Here is a list of some of the most prominent characteristic features of Operating Systems − Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it. Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor when it is no longer required. Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time. File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources. Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other similar techniques. Job Accounting − Keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users. Control Over System Performance − Records delays between the request for a service and from the system. Interaction with the Operators − Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form of instructions. The Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action, and informs the operation by a display screen. Error-detecting Aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-detecting methods. Coordination Between Other Software and Users − Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer Fundamentals – Antivirus ”; Previous Next What is Antivirus? Antiviruses are computer programs that are specifically created to detect, prevent and remove malware such as viruses. These programs scan computer systems to identify viruses, and related malicious programs and delete them to protect the system. An antivirus works similarly to the medicine given to the patients to get well. How does Antivirus Work? Antivirus programs start their working by fully scanning users” systems computers and files against different types of malware or viruses. Generally, hackers constantly create new viruses and distribute them in different ways to fix users” systems; a good antivirus is always able to scan to identify new or unknown types of malware threats. Antivirus software is a software program which is developed by a software company; the program performs some essential functions such as − Check files and folders for malware and malicious patterns. Allows users to schedule automatic scanning. Remove malicious malware automatically, and clean files after detecting a virus, in some cases antivirus notify their users about malware and take consent to clean it. Most programs use specific detection to identify known malware, generic detection to find malware or patterns using a common codebase, and heuristic detection to scan for unknown viruses by identifying suspicious files. If the program identifies a virus-infected file, it deletes it to protect your device. Antivirus works using detection techniques these are as − Virus detection techniques Antivirus program uses different techniques to detect a virus in the system. Some of the most commonly used techniques are as follows − Signature-based detection − In this technique, an antivirus detects viruses using its signatures; every virus has a unique signature as its characteristic of known malware to flag malicious software. These signatures help antivirus programs to recognise viruses and are analysed by security professionals. Heuristic-based detection − Heuristic-based detection uses the comparison of known signatures of viruses against potential threats. This technique can detect viruses that have not been uncovered yet; it can also detect existing viruses that do not meet signatures because the virus misguides or has different features. This method can also provide false-positive matches when antivirus software misidentifies a programme that behaves like a virus. A Heuristic detection includes − File analysis − This program examines a file”s apparent purpose. Multicriteria analysis (MCA) − MCA decides whether to classify a file as a harmful file on different detection methods. Behaviour-based detection − Behavior-based virus detection is a proactive technique for detecting and reducing malware threats by analysing the behaviour of programmes and processes rather than relying exclusively on signature-based detection. It includes monitoring system behaviour, setting a baseline of normal behaviour, anomaly detection, response and mitigation. This method works well against zero-day exploits and polymorphic malware that avoid signature-based detection. Cloud analysis − Cloud-based virus detection approaches use remote servers and large databases to analyse possibly malicious files and activity. Cloud-based antivirus solutions offer faster and more comprehensive protection than traditional antivirus software installed on individual devices. Furthermore, they can provide centralised management and monitoring capabilities, making them ideal for enterprise setups with different devices. It includes file submission, cloud analysis, signature-based scanning, behaviour analysis, heuristic analysis, machine learning & AI, response and mitigation and database update methods to analyse the cloud from suspicious malware. Sandbox analysis − This detection method runs a programme or file in a virtual sandbox to examine its behaviour before allowing it into the system. Generally, the Sandbox analysis method can detect malicious programs in a controlled and isolated environment called a sandbox. Host intrusion prevention system (HIPS) − It is used to detect malicious activities within a program using signature-based detection. A HIPS monitors activity and immediately warns users by presenting them with authorisation alternatives such as Allow or Block. Popular Antivirus Software Some popular antivirus programs are as − Norton AntiVirus McAfee Avira”s Trend Micro Avast Malwarebytes ESET Norton 360 Deluxe Advantages of Antivirus Software Benifits Significations of Antivirus Software Suspicious virus detection and deletion, malware. Preventing fraud and phishing, as well as identity theft. Alert yourself before clicking on any links or websites that seem risky. Scanning the Dark Web for hacked email addresses. Secure password encryption for online accounts. To keep safer during online access. To maintain optimal performance. Frequently Asked Questions / FAQs on Computer Virus What is an antivirus product? Detect and prevent viruses and malicious programs on your system. How do antivirus products work? Antivirus working principles include services by detecting viruses, deleting malicious code, prevent devices from suspicious applications. Modern antivirus software automatically updates after a time to protect the system against new viruses and spyware. Which antivirus product should I use? Some Antivirus programs are available default once a user purchases a new system or takes authentic operating systems that run Windows and Apple computers. Apart from this, a user can use the latest one by searching it on Google. How do I use my antivirus product? Install it and run a full scan. It by default scans all new files during downloaded from the internet or stores using USB devices, external hard disks, SD cards etc. What else should I do to keep my devices and my personal information safe? Don”t allow untrusted applications to access the system, don”t open untrusted websites and keep the system”s firewall on. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Types of Computer Ports ”; Previous Next What are Computer Ports? The computer ports are physical docking points of a computer that facilitate users to connect required external devices to the computer or computer network. A connection point that acts as an interface between the computer and external devices like a mouse, printer, modem, etc. is called a port. Ports are of two types − Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices like hard disk drives, CD drives, internal modems, etc. External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices like modem, mouse, printer, flash drives, etc. Expansion of a computer network or interconnection between multiple peripheral devices was possible through computer ports where network connections start and end. Generally, Ports are computer hardware which are software-based means they are operated by a software program like an operating system. The below image gives an idea about what ports are look like − Fig: Some most commonly used computer/ networking ports Generally, ports are docking points through which information flows from a program to the computer or over the Internet. Working Principles of Computer Ports Computer ports are tangible or virtual connectors on a computer or device that provide connectivity to external devices, peripherals, or networks. They enable the exchange of information between the computer and external devices. The functions or working principles of some common computer ports are as follows − Fig: Functions of computer ports Thunderbolt − These allow peripherals such as external storage, monitors and docking stations to be connected at high speed. Thunderbolt ports, which were created by Intel and Apple, allow for fast data transfer as well as the carrying of power and video. USB-C connectors are frequently used with Thunderbolt 3 ports. Thunderbolt Physical Connection i. Ports are physical sockets ii. Fixes on computer or devices to plug cables or connectors from external devices iii. Cables have connectors at both ends, one to fit into the port on the computer and the other to fit into the external device. Data Transfer i. Once the device connected to a port, data can be transferred between the computer and the device. ii. Allows transferring files to and from external storage devices iii. Sending and receiving data over a network connection iv. Streaming audio and video to external devices. Communication Protocols i. Port uses specific communication protocols to transfer data ii. For example, USB, which offers different data transfer speeds and capabilities, uses protocols such as USB 3.0, USB 3.0C, and USB 2.0C, each of which offers different data transfer speeds and capabilities. Device Recognition i. The device is recognised by the computer and drivers and automatically install drivers or configure settings to support it For example, when we connect a USB mouse, the system detects it automaticall and enables pointer control. Power Supply i. Ports provide power to connected devices. For example Smartphones, tablets, and USB accessories can be powered using USB ports without an adapter. Overall, Computer ports allow the computer to communicate and transfer data with external devices and peripherals. Characteristics of Ports A port has the following characteristics − External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports. Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of the external device is plugged in. Examples of external devices attached via ports are the mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers, etc. Let us now discuss a few important types of ports − Serial Port In the past, it was used to connect different devices which includes modems, mice, and printers; however, due to the prominence of USB, it has become completely obsolete in modern computers. Serial ports transmit data sequentially means one bit at a time. To do the same, these ports require one cable to transmit 8 bits. However, this makes slower communication. Serial ports are usually having 9-pin or 25-pin male connectors. They are also known as COM (communication) ports or RS323C ports. Overall, serial ports act as a port which is − Used for external modems and older computer mice Two versions: 9-pin, 25 pin model Data travels at 115 kilobits per second Parallel Ports Another older port that is primarily used for connecting printers and other devices that are used for external storage; like serial ports, parallel ports are rarely found on modern computers. Parallel ports can send or receive 8 bits or 1 byte at a time. Parallel ports come in the form of 25-pin female pins and are used to connect printers, scanners, external hard disk drives, etc. Used for scanners and printers Also called a printer port 25 pin model IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port PS/2 Port PS/2 stands for Personal System/2. It is a female 6-pin port standard that connects to the male mini-DIN cable. PS/2 was introduced by IBM to connect Input/output peripherals to personal computers. Used to create a connection between keyboards and mice on computers that is of an earlier generation. PS/2 ports have a circular shape, and they are coloured purple for keyboards and green for mice. This port is now mostly obsolete, though some systems compatible with IBM may have this port. Used for old computer keyboard and mouse Also called the mouse port Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 ports, each for the mouse and keyboard IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is the industry standard for short-distance

Computer – Power Supply Unit (PSU) ”; Previous Next What is a Power Supply Unit (PSU)? A Power Supply Unit also known as PSU is an essential computer hardware component that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) and then supplies voltage to every component connected to the system. The power supply transforms a 110-115 or 220-230 volt AC to a stable low-voltage DC that the computer can use and is rated by the number of watts it generates. Most of the power supplies are switched-mode (SMPS), which improves efficiency and simplifies design for different voltage inputs. PSUs have the abilities where the power input varies. Why Power Supply Unit is Important? A power supply is needed and works as an essential component in the computer system for the following reasons − Conversion of AC to DC Power − A primary function of a PSU is to convert AC from the wall outlet into DC and make computers” important components functional like the motherboard, CPU, GPU, and storage drives because they operate on DC power. Voltage Regulation − A PSU supplies the required voltage to different components to ensure that they receive the required voltage to perform +12V, +5V, and +3.3V. Power Distribution − A PSU works as a power supply distributor for the different components connected to the system. Protect system − A PSU also protects systems from overvoltage short-circuit, and thermal protection. Energy Efficiency − Efficient power supplies can cut electricity costs and the environmental effects of running a computer. How Does a Power Supply Unit (PSU) Work? A Power Supply Unit works by converting AC to DC and supplying required voltages to the different components connected to the system. Following are the steps to demonstrate how a PSU works − AC voltage as input − The PSU takes AC voltage as input. Rectification − A rectifier converts inputted AC voltage into DC. Filtering − The rectified DC power is subsequently filtered by capacitors to smooth out fluctuations and remove ripple, producing a more stable DC voltage. Switching − Switching is a process of sending filtered DC power to a high-frequency transformer; the switch-mode power supply (SMPS) converts DC voltage to high-frequency AC. This high-frequency AC enables the use of a smaller and more efficient transformer. Transformation and Isolation − The high-frequency AC is then transferred using a transformer, which steps down the voltage to the desired levels. This transformer keeps isolation between input and output to improve safety. Rectification and Filtering Again − The transformed AC voltage is rectified back into DC with diodes. This DC is then filtered once again with capacitors to remove any residual ripple, resulting in get stable DC voltage. Voltage Regulation − Voltage regulators are used to keep output voltages within limits, despite the changes in input voltage. This is critical to the computer”s stable operation. Output − The regulated DC voltages are supplied to every component connected to the system using specified connectors and cables. It includes common voltages like +12V, +5V, and +3.3V. Protection Mechanisms − Modern PSUs protect the system from overvoltage, short circuits, and thermal protection. Cooling − PSUs are equipped with cooling fans which keep systems cool from system heat generated during operations. Types of Power Supply Units Types of Power Supply are as follows − ATX Standard − These are the most common PSUs usually used in desktop systems. These power supplies are tailored to be compatible with the ATX motherboard and deliver three distinct positive voltage rails: +3.3 V, +5 V, and +12 V, in addition to a standby voltage rail of +5 V SB, which ensures that computers receive power when in standby mode. Entry-Level Power Supply Specification (EPS) − Based on the ATX standard, this PSU was specifically designed for servers. It sets a more stable environment for critical applications than ATX standards, which makes it perfect for critical servers. Small Form Factor (SFX) − These PSUs are used in smaller form-factor computers using MicroATX motherboards. These are the power supply units used in smaller set-top boxes like DVD players and cable boxes. Thin Form Factor (TFX) − TFX power supplies are longer and thinner than traditional ATX power supplies which are used in ultra-slim and low-profile desktops. Modular and Semi-Modular Power Supply − Modular PSUs allow users to connect using cables; this process minimises cable clutter and improves airflow while Semi-Modular PSUs use fixed and detachable cables. Non-Modular Power Supply − All cables are permanent and not removable. These are frequently less expensive, however, they result in more cable clutter. Laptop Power Supply / AC Adapter − External power supplies that convert AC to DCto power laptop computers. These are referred to as power bricks or AC adapters. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) − An external device that provides backup power during power outages, rather than a computer”s power supply unit. It contains batteries and can keep a system working for a short period if the main power fails. Functions of a Power Supply Unit The Power Supply Unit (PSU) in a computer performs different essential functions. Some of them are as follows − Power Conversion − The main function of a PSU is to convert AC from the wall outlet into DC. Generally, it provides multiple DC voltage outputs like +12V, +5V, +3.3V. Voltage Regulation − A PSU supplies the required voltage to different components to ensure that they receive the required voltage to perform +12V, +5V, and +3.3V. This is crucial for reliable operation and stable voltage. Power Distribution − A PSU works as a power supply distributor to the different components connected to the system like motherboard, CPU, graphics card, storage devices, and peripherals. Protection Mechanisms −

Computer – Hardware ”; Previous Next What is Computer Hardware? Hardware is the computer”s peripheral devices which are used to assemble the system. Hardware devices majorly include computer input-output devices, memory, and CPU. Generally, Hardware is the internal and external components of a computer that allow you to accomplish major functions such as input, output, storage, communication, and processing. Some most common examples of computer hardware are − Input / Output devices like Keyboard, mouse, & monitor The central processing unit (CPU) Motherboard Random access memory (RAM) Storage drive (HDD or SSD) Graphics processing unit (GPU) Computer hardware is an umbrella term for computer peripherals. Hardware refers to tangible devices of the system that can physically see, touch and understand its structure. These are the essential components for a computer to work on. Computer hardware is attached to the system internally or externally, depending on whether the physical component is located within or outside of the system. Generally, internal hardware is essential for the computer to function, whereas external hardware improves its use or functionality. Internal computer hardware can be a video card, memory, or the central processing unit (CPU), whereas exterior computer hardware can include a keyboard or mouse. Types of Computer Hardware There are two types of computer hardware − Internal hardware External hardware Internal Hardware Internal hardware is the computer peripherals which are connected inside the computer. These include motherboards, hard drives, and DDR (RAM). The following images are the core examples of computer hardware. External Hardware External hardware is the computer peripherals which are connected to the computer system externally. External hardware includes monitors, keyboards, printers, and scanners. Functions of Computer Hardware Generally, functions of computer hardware depend on hardware units like input, output, and processing and storage units. Hardware functions in a computer system include a wide range of operations that allow the machine to complete its tasks efficiently. These functions are often separated into different categories, each handled by a unique set of hardware components. Below are some of the key functions of the computer hardware”s − Input hardware facilitates users to input the data into the system A keyboard is used to type text, a Mouse to select an option by clicking on it, a scanner to scan images or pages etc. Output hardware produces the output into human understandable forms like a Monitor is used to display the output on the screen, a Printer to print output in the form of hard copy, speakers used to produce audio sound and projectors are used to project visual output on larger surfaces. Processing hardware like processors executes programs or instructions and performs calculations or does computations. Storage hardware like memory devices stores data to retain for future use. RAM for temporary storage and HDD to store data permanently. Communication hardware devices enable users to data exchange between multiple devices over the computer network. These include Network Interface Card (NIC), Modem, and Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Adapters. Control hardware manages and directs the operations of different components attached to the system. It includes a Motherboard, Power Supply Unit (PSU) and BIOS/UEFI. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer Fundamentals – Extranet ”; Previous Next Introduction An extranet is a private computer network that allows controlled access to external users or organizations over the Internet. An extranet is a collaborative, internet-based network that makes it easier for companies to work together by connecting a company with its customers, suppliers, and other outside business partners. The concept of the extranet emerged when organisations wanted to engage in collaboration with external partners, including suppliers, customers, and contractors. Extranets refer to non-public networks that transcend the confines of an organisation, encompassing certain external entities. It serves as an extension of an organization”s intranet. Extranets are safe computer networks for organisations or businesses to share business data and processes internally and with partners outside the company. They use internet-based apps and technology to do it and provide secure access to specific resources and information to authorized users outside of the organization, such as clients, partners, suppliers, or customers. An extranet is a safe and cooperative way for an organisation to connect its network to people outside the organisation. It makes it easy for people outside the organisation to communicate, work together, and share data. How extranet works? An extranet works as a secure extension of an organization”s internal network; it provides controlled access to external users such as clients, partners, suppliers, or other stakeholders. Here”s a breakdown of how an extranet typically functions − Authentication and Access Control − External users access the extranet using usernames, passwords, or two-factor authentication. Access controls restrict users to information and features related to their role or relationship with the company. This is usually done through user roles, permissions, and access. Secure Communication − Internal and external users can securely communicate and collaborate on the extranet. Messaging, chat, forums, and email integration are some common examples of this. Communication channels are encrypted to prevent eavesdropping. Document Management and File Sharing − Users can upload, share, and collaborate on documents and files within the extranet environment. Document management features typically include version control, file organization, access permissions, and audit trails to track changes and maintain data integrity. Project Management − Project management technologies on extranets help internal and external teams collaborate. Users can assign duties, set deadlines, measure progress, and share project documents and information. Data Sharing and Exchange − Users can securely share sensitive files and information with others. Integration with cloud storage services may enable cross-platform data interchange and collaboration. Collaboration and Workflow Automation − Extranets consolidate information, tools, and resources, simplifying collaboration and workflows. Alerts, reminders, and task automation help users stay organized and productive. Reporting and Analytics − Reports and statistics reveal extranet usage, collaboration, and project performance. To increase efficiency and effectiveness, organizations can track KPIs, spot trends, and make data-driven choices. Security and Compliance − To keep sensitive information safe and in line with regulations, stringent security measures are put in place, including firewalls, encryption, and access controls. Extranets may adhere to industry standards and best practices for data security and privacy, such as GDPR, HIPAA, or ISO certifications. Features of Extranet Secure Access − To prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing the platform, the extranet uses strong security measures. This includes multi-factor authentication and encryption protocols to safeguard sensitive information. Document Management − Easy document upload, sharing, and collaboration with authorized users. With our intuitive folder structure and version control system, everyone can access the latest data while retaining organization and security. Communication Tools − Built-in chat, texting, and forums keep you connected. The communication tools simplify collaboration and boost productivity for project tasks and updates. Project Management − Task lists, timetables, and milestone tracking help you manage projects more efficiently. Assign tasks, create deadlines, and track progress to ensure that projects stay on track and goals are fulfilled efficiently. Data Sharing and Exchange − Securely share data with clients and partners. A secure file-sharing technology interacts with various cloud storage services for easy data exchange. Calendar and Events − Keep everyone informed about upcoming events, meetings, and deadlines with shared calendars and event scheduling features. Receive reminders and notifications to stay on top of important dates. Reporting and Analytics − The reporting and analytics tools reveal platform usage, project progress, and collaboration indicators. Track KPIs and make smart decisions to succeed in business. Types of Extranets Extranets come in various types, each tailored to meet specific business needs and requirements. Here are some common types of extranets − Supplier Extranet − An extranet for suppliers facilitates collaboration between organisations and their suppliers, vendors, and distributors. The system enhances the exchange of information about orders, inventory control, delivery timetables, and product requirements. Supplier extranets optimise procurement procedures, enhance supply chain transparency, and fortify supplier relationships. Customer Extranet − A customer extranet provides a platform for organizations to interact with their customers and clients. It may encompass different functionalities, such as placing orders online, managing accounts, providing customer service, and accessing product information or technical documentation. Customer extranets have been found to have a positive impact on customer satisfaction, as they incorporate self-service features and promote consumer involvement and loyalty. Partner Extranet − A partner extranet facilitates the ability of business partners, including joint venture partners, resellers, and co-marketing partners, to engage in collaborative efforts and exchange of information. It enhances the ability to engage in collaborative efforts, exchange sales and marketing materials, and synchronise cooperative endeavours. The use of partner extranets serves to enhance collaborations, facilitate effective communication, and foster collaborative decision-making processes. Collaboration Extranet − The collaboration extranet functions as a platform that facilitates the sharing of ideas and resources between internal and external stakeholders, enabling them to engage in collaborative efforts. The system may encompass several functionalities such as document sharing, project management tools, a forum for

Computer – Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) ”; Previous Next What is Graphics Processing Unit (GPU?) Graphics processing is an advanced technology that has evolved specifically for computing. The graphics processing unit (GPU) is an advanced and specialised processor which makes computing possibilities for machine learning, deep learning, gaming, content creation, and many more related technologies. A graphics processing unit (GPU) is a specialised electrical circuit that accelerates computer graphics and image processing. GPUs are useful for non-graphic computations such as neural networks and cryptocurrency. GPUs were originally developed to speed up the rendering of 3D visuals. They gradually became more adaptable and programmable and expanded their capabilities. This enabled graphics programmers to generate more fascinating visual effects and realistic scenes using advanced lighting and shadowing methods. In other applications, GPUs are most widely used to significantly work with high-performance computing (HPC), deep learning, and other domains. Significances of GPUs GPUs are mostly used to speed up real-time 3D graphics applications like gaming. However, as the twenty-first century began, computer experts recognised that GPUs could address some of the world”s most complex computing problems. This realisation ushered in the era of general-purpose GPUs. Graphics technology is now being used to solve a broader range of challenges. Today”s GPUs are more programmable than ever before, allowing them to power a wide range of applications beyond standard graphics rendering. GPUs are significant for the following reasons − GPUs for Gaming Video games have become more computationally intensive, with hyperrealistic graphics and vast, complicated in-game worlds. With advanced display technologies, such as 4K screens and high refresh rates, along with the rise of virtual reality gaming, demands on graphics processing are growing fast. GPUs are capable of rendering graphics in both 2D and 3D. With better graphics performance, games can be played at higher resolution, at faster frame rates, or both. GPUs for Video Editing and Content Creation GPUs provide a computational solution for parallel processing, with built-in AI features and sophisticated acceleration for faster execution and easier rendering of video and graphics in higher-defined formats. GPU for Machine Learning Artificial intelligence and machine learning are among the most interesting applications for GPU technology. Because GPUs have an enormous amount of computational power, they can provide remarkable acceleration in workloads that make use of GPUs” highly parallel nature, such as image recognition. Many of today”s deep learning solutions rely on GPUs to work alongside CPUs. How do GPUs work? A GPU is ideally suited for tasks or programs that require large volumes of data and repetitive computation. GPUs have a similar fetch-decode-execute cycle, it has designed in such a way that they can handle thousands of threads at once, making them well-suited for parallel processing tasks − Fetching − The GPU fetches instructions for the execution from its internal memory. (VRAM). Decoding − The control units of streaming multiprocessors (SMs) decode instructions. Each SM can process multiple instructions at once and assign them to available cores. Executing − The decoded instructions are executed by multiple small cores in the SM. These cores perform operations like matrix multiplication and vector operations for graphics rendering and machine learning. Writing back − The findings are either returned to GPU memory or transmitted to the display output. Overall, GPU working includes − Parallel Processing − GPUs, unlike CPUs, have thousands of small cores which are integrated with the system to do parallel processing. This makes it extremely efficient for larger and more complex tasks that can be divided into smaller ones and apply parallel processing to them. CUDA cores (NVIDIA) or stream processors (AMD) − These are the basic processing units of a GPU, which can execute the processes on their own. Modern GPUs exist with thousands of these cores. Memory − A GPU has its memory which is known as Graphics Memory or VRAM (Video RAM). A VRAM is capable enough to do multiple tasks at once. This allows them to rapidly process and render images. Shader − Shaders are specialised processing units within a GPU. They are specifically designed to perform vertex shading, geometry shading, pixel shading, and computation. These units support rendering graphics and computations. APIs − To optimise GPUs, software applications use programming interfaces such as CUDA or OpenCL to manage and perform parallel activities. These APIs give support to developers with tools, frameworks and libraries to help them design programmes that make the best use of GPU capabilities. Data and task parallelism − GPUs are capable enough to perform data parallelism and task parallelism on different sets of data simultaneously. SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) − This paradigm enables GPUs to perform the same action on multiple data points at once making them useful for image processing and scientific computations. Task distribution − Workloads for graphics rendering or scientific simulations are divided into different smaller jobs; each of them is assigned to a separate thread that the GPU then runs concurrently. This strategy considerably reduces total processing time. Thread execution − Threads are smaller units of work that allow concurrent processing; this process shows how GPUs function. A GPU can support thousands of threads at a time. Characteristics of GPU Some of the key characteristics of GPU are as follows − Parallel processing − GPUs contain thousands of specialized to perform multiple tasks simultaneously. GPUs include SIMD, this feature allows the GPU to apply the same operation on multiple data points in parallel. Memory − GPUs have their memory. GPUs Video RAM enables rapid access to data and faster data transfer. High Throughput − The parallel processing feature of GPUs provides high throughput. Shaders − Shaders allow for transformations and lighting, texturing, shading and computational tasks beyond graphics rendering Scalability − GPUs can scale

Computer – Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) ”; Previous Next What is ALU? ALU stands for Arithmetic Logic Unit. An ALU is a key component of the CPU which performs arithmetic and logical operations. It can perform billions of operations per second. An ALU circuit has the integration of four key components inputs, operands, outputs, and storage. To store binary digits, computers use transistor switches that are either open or closed. Data is also stored in a register designated to store output. ALUs tend to be fast and accurate. These conduct logical operations such as bitwise operations, which are operations on a string of binary numbers. The CPU processor directly supports bitwise logical operations, which are fast, simple, and range from basic to higher-level. ALUs conduct bit shifting, which is the movement of bits in response to particular instructions from bit operators. ALUs may also do multiple-precision arithmetic, which is a software operation required when the desired level of accuracy exceeds the hardware”s capacity. ALUs can do complex arithmetic and logical operations because they enable modern computers to split difficult calculations into a large number of binary processes. What does the ALU do? ALUs carry out arithmetic and logical operations. Also found in the CPU are Control Units, or CUs. The CU directs the ALU in performing specific operations, with the ALU being responsible for carrying out these operations. The NOT Gate consists of a single transistor and one input logic gate. Its function is to produce outputs that are the inverse of the input. For instance, an input of 1 would result in an output of 0. Multiple transistors and two inputs are used in the OR Gate. The output is only 1 if the first or second input is 1. Conversely, the OR gate produces an output of 0 when both inputs are 0. The AND Gate utilizes multiple transistors and two inputs. The output is 1 only if both the first and second inputs are 1. Functions of ALU The ALU is an essential component of the CPU. It majorly performs arithmetic and logical operations on inputted data. The ALU has different electrical input and output connections that enable the transmission of digital signals between the ALU and external electronic devices. Data is provided to the ALU inputs by external circuits, and the ALU sends processed computational results. Some of the key functionalities of the ALU are as − Arithmetic Operations − It includes addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical Operations − It includes AND, OR, NOT, XOR (exclusive OR), and bit-shifting logical operations. Comparison Operations − The ALU also performs a comparison of numbers to determine greater than, less than, or equal to. Bitwise Operations − These include operations that change individual bits inside a data word, such as shifting them left or right and masking specific bits. Data flow into the ALU − ALU has direct access to the CPU controllers, primary memory, and input/output devices. ALU takes input data from memory using the bus-like electrical route. Applying functions − The internal components of the ALU are used to perform binary calculations for a variety of functions. Provides Temporary Storage − The ALU commonly includes memory blocks to store input operands, operands to be added, accumulated results, and shifted results. The ALU takes input from the processor”s registers and gets back the results to the registers. It is a critical component of the CPU, allowing it to do the computations required for various tasks and operations in a computer system. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;

Computer – Motherboard ”; Previous Next What is a Computer Motherboard? A motherboard is a circuit board which is fixed inside the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer. It can be considered as a computing system which integrates most of the essential components of a computer. A motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer. It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video cards, sound cards, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer. Generally, it is made up of fibreglass and copper. The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes. The motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for the CPU, whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. The motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply. There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard. On the left side, motherboards carry several ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which allow compatible devices to be connected in a plug-in/plug-out fashion—for example, pen drives, digital cameras, etc. Components of a Motherboard A motherboard is made up of different components; some of the primary elements are as follows − CPU Socket − It’s a major component which determines the processor connected to the system. Memory Slots − These slots allow connecting memory devices into it. Storage Connectors − These slots include Serial ATA ports to connect hard drives like hard drives and SSDs. ROM Slots − These slots allow ROM BIOS to connect. Chipset − It connects CPU, memory, storage and peripheral devices. Cooling fans − Cooling fans that maintain a suitable internal operating temperature. Peripheral connector − these include USB ports to connect peripheral devices. Audio Connectors − These allow audio input and output devices to work with analogue and digital audio signals. Network Connectors − These ports are used for wired network connections, or Wi-Fi to access the internet. Power connector − power connectors are used to connect external power sources. There are two basic types: the 24-pin ATX power connector and the 4 or 8-pin CPU power connector. BIOS/UEFI − The Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), also known as the Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI), is a type of firmware that initializes and tests hardware during the boot process; it also provides runtime services to operating systems and programs. Features of Computer Motherboard A motherboard comes with the following features − Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components. The motherboard supports a single type of CPU and a few types of memory. Video cards, hard disks, and sound cards have to be compatible with the motherboard to function properly. Motherboards, cases, and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together. Types of Motherboards Different types of Motherboards are as follows − Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard This motherboard was designed by IBM in 1984 with the IBM PC/AT. It was most widely used in industry and influenced the design of many subsequent motherboards. This motherboard has larger physical dimensions but is not suitable for smaller desktop computers. The original AT motherboards were available in 12 inches × 13.8 inches (305 mm x 351 mm) in size, making them relatively large by modern standards. The configuration of AT motherboards was not standardized, resulting in major differences between manufacturers. This frequently resulted in inadequate airflow and complex cable management. The Advanced Technology (AT) motherboard was a key form factor in the history of personal computing, establishing standards that impacted subsequent designs. However, due to its large size, convoluted layout, and restricted integration, it was eventually replaced by the more efficient and user-friendly ATX specification. Standard ATX motherboard ATX stands for advanced technology extended; it is an extended version of the AT motherboard that was created by Intel in the 1990s. It has become one of the most prevalent motherboard sizes used in desktop computers because of its compatibility and interchanged component features. A standard ATX motherboard is a popular desktop computer form factor that offers a good combination of size, capabilities, and expansion. Standard ATX motherboards are typically 305 mm x 244 mm (12 in x 9.6 in) in size. This size provides enough space for components and expansion slots. ATX motherboard uses a common layout to enhance ventilation and component placement. The CPU socket is normally located toward the top or middle of the board, with expansion slots aligned for effective cooling and simplicity of installation. Micro ATX motherboard Micro ATX motherboards are smaller in size and have limited ports and slots than the Standard ATX board. This motherboard is better suited to users who don”t desire too many connections and subsequent updates. Micro ATX (mATX) motherboards are smaller versions of the conventional ATX motherboard form factor. It has been specifically designed concerning size and features which make it ideal for compact desktop builds while not compromising too much expandability or speed. Micro ATX motherboards typically have dimensions of 244 mm x 244 mm (9.6 in x 9.6 in), which are smaller than conventional ATX but larger than Mini-ITX. Micro ATX motherboards provide the right blend of size, capabilities, and expandability, making them a popular choice for a variety of desktop PC configurations. They provide ample PCIe slots and connectivity choices for most users while fitting

Computer – Internet and Intranet ”; Previous Next In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and Intranet, as well as discuss the similarities and differences between the two. Internet It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computer’s location. A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to provide a name to the IP Address so that the user can locate a computer by a name. For example, a DNS server will resolve a name https://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted. Internet is accessible to every user all over the world. Intranet Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet. Usually each organization has its own Intranet network and members/employees of that organization can access the computers in their intranet. Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the computers in that Intranet. Similarities between Internet and Intranet Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP. Intranet sites are accessible via the web browser in a similar way as websites in the internet. However, only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites. In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/gtalk over the internet. Differences between Internet and Intranet Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs. Internet provides a wider and better access to websites to a large population, whereas Intranet is restricted. Internet is not as safe as Intranet. Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need. Print Page Previous Next Advertisements ”;